y 


TUFTS   UNIVERSITY   LIBRARIES 


3   9090  013   413   881 


JOHNA.SEAVERNS 


Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinary  Medicine 
Cummings  Sciioo!  of  Veterinary  IVledicine  at 
Tufts  University 
200  Westboro  Road 
North  Grafton,  MA  01 53S 


RADICAL-MECHANICS 

OF 

ANIMAL  LOCOMOTION. 

WITH   EEMAEKS 

ON  THE 

SETTING-UP  OF  SOLDIERS, 

HORSE  AND  FOOT, 

AND  ON  THE 

SUPPLING    OF    CAVALRY    HORSES. 

BY 

WILLIAM  PRATT  WAINWRIGHT, 

FORMERLY  COLONEL  COMMANDING  SEVENTY-SIXTH  NEW  YORK 
INFANTRY- VOLUNTEERS. 


NEW  YORK : 

PUBLISHED  FOR  THE  AUTHOR  BY 

D.  VAN  NOSTRAND, 

23  MURRAY  AND  27  WARREN  STREETS. 
1880. 


so 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1880, 

By  WILLIAM  PRATT  WAINWRIGHT, 

In  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


WHOM  I  HAD  THE  HONOK  OF  COMMANDING 

FROJyE    JULY.    1863,    TO    JUNK,    1863, 

INCLUDING  THE  ACTION  OF  GAINESVILLE,  THE  BATTLE  OF 
SOUTH  MOUNTAIN,  AND  OTHER  ENGAGEMENTS, 

THESE    PAGES 
ARE  MOST  RESPECTFULLY  DEDICATED. 


PREFACE. 


The  following  discussion,  if  it  estabKsli  a  method 
of  accomplishing  the  ends  described  in  its  title, 
may  be  of  use  beyond  the  sphere  of  contributing 
to  the  "setting-up"  of  soldiers;  for  "being  set- 
up," in  its  proper  sense,  sliould  give  additional 
strength  and  activity  to  any  man .  In  fact,  set- 
ting-up aims  at  the  restoration  of  the  human 
frame,  so  far  as  locomotion  and  position  are  con- 
cerned, to  the  perfection  in  which  God  created  it ; 
a  derangement  of  this  perfection  being  the  real 
obstacle  which  hinders  a  man's  body  from  per- 
fectly following  the  motion  of  a  horse,  when  riding, 
or  from  accommodating  its  balance  to  any  normal 
posture  in  which  it  may  be  placed . 

If  setting-up  were  applicable  only  to  soldiers,  it 
were  well  worthy  of  study,  for  the  calling  of  a  sol- 
dier, although  liable  to  great  abuse — as  is  any 
powerful  instrument  when  used  by  wicked  hands — 
is,  in  itself,  a  high  one,  and  the  Holy  Scriptures 


continually  mention  the  noble  traits  which  it  re- 
quires. Whether  it  be  a  Christian  calling  depends 
entirely  upon  the  use  made  of  it,  and  few  will 
question  the  assumption  that  the  militia,  as  on  a 
grand  scale,  the  police  of  the  country,  and  on  an 
emergency,  its  defenders,  are  fulfilhng  a  religious 
as  well  as  a  civil  duty,  in  fitting  themselves  for 
these  objects. 

Now,  although  thorough  military  discipline  is 
the  grand  strength  of  an  army,  and  the  indispen- 
sable requisite  for  the  success  of  small  numbers 
against  great  ones ;  yet,  setting-up,  which  so  far 
as  his  body  goes,  enables  a  man  to  look  and  feel 
like  a  soldier,  is  the  physical  beginning  of  this  dis- 
cipline, and  with  soldiers,  as  with  children,  the 
physical  education  has  great  influence  on  the  men- 
tal. Beside  this,  a  well  set-up  man  may  com- 
plete his  education  as  a  private  after  the  army  is 
in  motion ;  but  setting-up  can  hardly  be  accom- 
plished when  the  drill  ground  is  once  abandoned. 

In  the  following  discussion  we  have  taken  the 
ground  that  only  a  man  who  is  ambidexter  can 
have  the  perfect  command  and  full  force  of  the 
movements  of  his  body;  whether,  indeed,  some 
slight  inclination  to  one  side  be  necessary  to  avoid 
a   sort  of  dead-centre  catch,  we  cannot  positively 


vu 


saj,  since  some  observers  affirm  that  they  have 
discovered  the  tendency  to  a  favorite  side,  even 
in  wild  animals ;  and  also  since  it  is  obvious 
that  the  position  of  the  stomach,  subject  as  this 
organ  is,  to  an  increase  in  size  disproportionate  to 
its  pendant  the  hver,  would  favor  a  right  hand 
and  left  leg  preponderance  which,  indeed,  is  so 
general  among  civilized  men  that  it  has  come  to 
be  considered  as  the  normal  condition  of  the 
frame.  However  this  may  be,  we  think  it  evident 
that  the  preponderance  need  be  but  very  slight, 
and  that  anything  beyond  this  measure  interferes 
with  the  force  and  free  movement  of  both  sets  of 
diagonal  Hmbs. 

The  fundamental  actioiiy  as  ice  have  in  the  follow- 
ing pages  traced  the  theory  of  locomotion,  is  a  hdi- 
cat  turning  of  the  appuis,  discharged  and  reduced  by 
a  contrary  helical  turn,  whose  sudden  discharge  con- 
stitutes a  spring.  The  chief  appui  may  be  single, 
as  in  the  fish,  where  the  ribs  and  fins  are  mere  ac- 
cessories, and  the  back-bone  acting  on  the  tail 
gives  propulsion  to  the  animal.  Or  it  may  be 
double  and  have  independent  working  forces,  while 
still  directed  and  to  some  extent  worked  by  the 
simple  spine,  which  then  becomes  a  neck,  as  in  the 
bird,  where  the  wings  and  legs  are  attached  to  a 


VUl 

body  whose  vertebrae  are  consolidated  into  a  single 
spinal  piece. 

Or,  this  final  vertebra  may  be  resolved  into  a 
series  of  vertebrae  separating  the  fore-and  rear- 
limbs,  in  which  case  the  ribs  move  on  an  artificial 
ground  furnished  by  the  breast-bone.  The  trunk, 
then,  forming  a  compound  spine,  works  on  four 
limbs,  exterior  to  the  whole,  as  in  quadrupeds. 

Or,  bringing  the  centre  of  motion  more  forward, 
and  more  between  the  fore  limbs,  the  animal  may 
be  able  to  advance  to  some  advantage  with  the 
two  rear  limbs  only  as  appuis  on  the  ground. 

Or,  finally,  the  centre  of  motion  being  brought 
still  further  up,  so  that  the  neck,  working  between 
the  shoulders  and  the  lower  jaw,  becomes  the 
master-centre  of  all  motion,  we  have  that  highest 
development  of  vertebrate  structure  into  which 
alone  it  has  pleased  God,  as  the  consummation  of 
His  plan  for  terrestrial  creatures,  in  addition  to  in- 
telhgence  or  even  reason,  to  breathe  a  "  living  soul" 
capable  of  knowing  its  Creator. 

"We  think  the  epochs  between  these  classes  are 
widely  marked,  and  we  are  chiefly  puzzled  as  to 
where  one  may  place  the  snake,  which  seems  rather 
to  have  come  from  stripping  some  animal  of  its 
limbs  than  as  a  regular  forward  step ;  for  while  the 


fish  may  contain  tlie  elements  for  fashioning  a  bird, 
and  the  bird  for  fashioning  a  quadruped,  the  snake, 
if  put  in  the  series,  must  stand  below  the  fish, 
which  has  additional  appuis,  although  the  snake  is 
evidently  of  a  more  perfect  organization. 

Leaving  this  point,  which  we  are  not  sufiiciently 
versed  in  comparative  anatomy  to  debate,  we  will 
only  add  that  the  snake,  furnishing  the  most  purely 
simple  method  of  locomotion  among  the  vertebrate 
animals,  affords  on  that  account  the  clearest  ground 
for  tracing  the  elementary  motions. 

Our  object  is  not  only  to  propose  a  theory,  but 
in  case  this  theory  be  the  true  one,  to  make  it 
popularly  inteUigible.  This  object,  and  want  of 
skill  in  composition  will,  we  hope,  excuse  consider- 
able proHxity  where  a  good  writer  could  have  sub- 
mitted his  views  to  the  decision  of  qualified  judges 
in  much  fewer  words. 

Two  articles  published  in  the  August  and  Octo- 
ber, 1853,  numbers  of  the  Fclaireur,  a  mihtary 
journal  issued  for  some  time  by  Colonel  Cowman, 
and  afterward  by  General  J.  Watts  de  Peyster,  and 
one  or  two  allusions  to  the  subject  possibly  made 
in  a  series  of  articles  in  the  Army  and  Navy 
Journal^  on  "Marching  of  troops  in  large  bodies," 
July  2d,  1864,  and  following ;  "  The  discipline  and 


care  of  troops,"  October  1st,  1864,  and  following  ,- 
and  "  The  fighting  of  troops,"  February  11th,  1865,. 
and  following ;  are  all  that  the  author  has  previ- 
ously written  on  the  subject. 


SUMMARY. 

The  excessive  use  of  one  liand,  and  of  the  parts  of  the 
body  brought  into  action  with  it,  is  the  cause  of  a  general 
deformity  among  civilized  men. 

This  so  interferes  with  the  central-pivot  working  of  the 
body  as  to  greatly  reduce  its  power  of  producing  and  sus- 
taining action. 

The  working  of  the  spine  is  the  fundamental  basis  of 
movement. 

Motion — properly — originates  in  the  spine,  is  directed  by 
the  head,  and  is  only  followed  up  by  the  limbs. 

The  snake  presents  the  simplest  type  of  the  spinal  working. 

Exemplification  of  the  snake's  movement  by  twisting  a 
cord  or  elastic  rod  by  counter-turning  its  two  ends. 

These  counter-turns,  which  produce  curvatures  similar  to 
those  of  the  snake  in  locomotion,  will,  when  carried  beyond 
a  certain  limit,  originate  from  their  central  point  of  coun- 
teraction reverse  curvatures,  which,  if  allowed  to  replace 
the  old  ones  and  again  to  produce  a  fresh  set,  would  present 
the  shapes  of  alternately  reversed  curvatures  as  they  are 
seen  in  the  locomotion  of  the  snake. 

In  displacing  one  set  of  curvatures  by  their  alternates  a 
spring  is  produced. 

The  reverse  set  of  curvatures  developed  from  the  central 
point  of  counteraction  of  the  opposing  turns  belongs  to  the 
nascent  alternate  curve,  but  wait  to,^  be  accepted  as  such 
until,  by  a  change  of  originating  points,  the  old  cui-vatures 
are  discharged  and  the  alternate  ones  adopted. 

The  first  effect  of  twisting  one  of  the  ends  of  the  elastic 
rod  is  to  develope  a  general  winding  line  of  shape  from  one 
end  to  the  other. 
1* 


xu 


So  soon  as  the  twist  from  one  end  is  fully  resisted  by 
that  from  the  other,  the  line  of  counter  action  across  the 
thickness  of  the  rod  has  that  end  of  it  which  the  active 
tnm  directly  affects  drawn  to  one  side. 

The  drawing  to  one  side  of  this  end  fixes  the  other  end 
of  the  cross  line  which  is  affected  by  the  counter-twist  so 
that  this  latter  cannot  work  directly  upon  it  from  the 
originating  point. 

This  fixed  displacement  of  one  end  of  the  cross  line 
causes  the  w^orking  of  the  second  twist  to  be  diffused 
through  the  rod,  and  thus  the  ensuing  spring  may  have  for 
its  points  of  appui  a  point  at  the  centre  of  the  rod,  and  a 
point  of  rest  on  the  ground  at  one  end  of  the  rod,  and  on 
the  same  side  as  that  at  the  centre,  instead  of  having  both 
points  at  the  centre  and  on  opposite  sides. 

It  is  thus  that  a  movement  in  j)rogression  or  retrogres- 
sion may  be  obtained,  instead  of  a  spring  in  two  directions, 
from  the  centre  of  the  rod. 

The  fundamental  action  of  locomotion  is,  then,  the  forma- 
tion and  discharge  of  two  counter-turns  in  an  elastic  rod  ; 
the  turn  discharged  giving  the  spring,  and  the  other,  after 
controlling  this  spring,  presenting  through  the  counter- 
turn  it  has  developed  at  the  cross  line,  the  shape  for  the 
alternate  of  the  first,  which  again  receives  a  counter-turn, 
and  so  on. 

The  displacement  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  the  end  of 
the  cross  line  affected  by  the  second  turn  of  one  set  of 
diagonal  counter-turns  becoming  permanent,  and  thus  in- 
terfering with  the  action  of  the  alternate  set  is  the  cause  of 
the  general  deformity  spoken  of  above.  The  reduction  of  this 
displacement  by  strengthening  those  muscles  which  work 
the  alternate  winding  lines,  and  the  giving  position  to  the 
alternate  and  opposing  cross  line,  is  its  cure. 

The  body  of  the  snake  presents  an  elastic  compound  rod, 
which  moves  by  forming,    discharging,    and,    after  each 


XIU 


spring,  replacing  by  opposite  curvatures  the  twists  formed 
in  its  back  bone  and  in  its  ribs. 

These  twists  are  projected  in  a  consolidated  action  in  the 
ball  and  socket  joint  of  the  head,  and  in  partial  concentra- 
tions in  the  various  ball  and  socket  joints  connecting  the 
ribs  and  the  spine. 

The  simplest  example  of  the  action  is  in  any  one  of  the 
snake's  ribs,  which  being  in  appui  on  the  ground  is,  by  the 
motion  of  the  spine,  turned  through  its  length  in  one  direc- 
tion ;  then,  being  still  fixed  at  the  ground,  it  is  by  another 
motion  of  the  spine  turned  in  the  opposite  direction,  and 
the  spring  is  liberated  by  the  discharge  of  the  first  turn  at 
the  ball  and  socket  joints  by  which  the  rib  joins  the  spine. 

The  eyes  are  the  centre  of  direction,  and  in  the  snake  as 
in  other  animals,  are  kept  steady  by  the  arrangement  of  a 
principal  muscle  passing  through  a  loop,  in  which,  after 
receiving  the  counter  twists,  the  two  portions  into  which 
the  loop  divides  the  muscle,  slip  back  to  their  original 
condition. 

The  lung  of  the  snake  filled  with  air  presents  a  perma- 
nent compensating-portion  of  the  machinery  of  locomotion. 
This,  when  compressed  on  one  line  at  the  discharge,  ex- 
pands immediately  on  the  alternate  line,  and  thus,  having 
aided  in  giving  force  to  the  discharge  of  one  spring,  aids 
also  in  the  formation  of  the  next.  The  working  of  a  tense 
fluid,  as  the  pivot  of  every  movement,  also  secures  the 
smoothness  of  action,  which,  as  well  as  its  force,  depends 
much  on  the  filling  of  the  lung. 

The  snake's  ribs,  when  acting  along  the  several  convex 
and  concave  curvatures  induced  by  the  twistings  of  the 
spine,  may,  on  each  of  them,  be  divided  into  Propellers  and 
Bearers,  both  of  which  discharge  with  the  primarily  formed 
lines  of  torsion,  but  in  opposite  directions.  The  propellers, 
which  by  a  peculiarity  in  the  shape  of  the  curvature,  are  in 


XIV 


preponderance  at  the  rear,  thrust  the  body  forward  over  the 
bearers,  which  raise  it  at  the  front  of  the  curvature. 

All  the  tractions  gather  in  diagonal  action,  but  discharge 
in  collateral  action.  This  collateral  action  is  only  moment- 
ary in  the  movements  produced  by  alternate  diagonal 
counteractions,  but  if  the  two  possible  sets  of  counterac- 
tions are,  suppose,  to  work  simultaneously,  they  reciprocally 
suppress  the  diagonal  elements  of  shape,  and  the  alternate 
helical  forms  are  replaced  by  undulations  in  the  perpen- 
dicular plane. 

In  these  undulations  the  force  of  the  diagonal  elements 
is  yet  present,  but  the  acting  tractions  are  made  collateral 
even  before  the  discharge. 

It  is  this  undulating  shape  which  the  spine  of  the  higher 
animals  assumes,  more  or  less,  for  all  springs  from  two  hind 
feet  at  once,  and  its  perfect  production  is  required  for  a  per- 
fect halt  from  any  kind  of  movement. 

The  position  of  such  a  halt  is  that  in  which  the  body  is 
perfectly  gathered  for  making,  on  the  instant,  any  move- 
ment of  which  it  is  capable,  and  is  what  is  meant  by  "  set- 
ting-up "  when  applied  to  an  attitude  of  immobility. 

This  position  may  be  produced  either  by  forcing  one 
of  the  sets  of  counteractions  beyond  its  limits  without 
discharge,  in  which  case  the  other  set  accepts  the  excess  of 
gathering,  and  both  gatherings  thus  become  formed  ;  or  by 
commencing  with  the  formation  of  both  sets  at  the  same 
time. 

The  movements  of  the  snake  are  caused  by  a  succession 
of  springs  from  an  indefinite  number  of  what  may  be  called 
torsion  curves,  of  two  curvatures  each  ;  but  in  man  and  the 
higher  animals  the  spinal  curves  are  limited  to  three  : — one 
in  the  back,  which  answers  to  the  chest  curve  in  the  snake  ; 
one  in  the  loins,  which  is  not  complete  until  by  moving  the 
hinder  limbs  it  has  compounded  itself  with  the  chest 
curve  ;  and  one  in  the  neck,  which  combines  itself  with  the 


X\r 


other  two,  and  by  moving  the  fore-limbs  and  lower  jaw  on 
a  virtual  ball  and  socket  joint  at  the  root  of  the  neck,  forms 
the  whole  body  into  one  curve. 

In  this  doubly  compounded  curve  the  hind  and  fore- 
limbs  are  the  appuis,  the  head  the  director,  and  the  centre  of 
the  lungs,  made  one  in  action  with  the  head  joints  is  the 
centre  of  force. 

In  man,  by  means  of  the  collar  bones  and  general  shape, 
such  a  perfect  transmission  to  the  feet  of  the  appui  on  the 
arms  is  effected  that  his  natural  position  becomes  one  of 
sole  acutual  appui  on  these  latter,  although  a  proper  action 
of  the  arms  as  a  brace  is  still  a  condition  of  its  perfection. 

In  the  higher  animals  the  effects  of  the  lines  of  torsion 
forming  in  the  central  or  ophidian  curve  pass  to  the  breast 
bone,  which,  as  an  artificial  ground,  supports  the  play  of 
the  ribs  ;  the  effects  of  the  lines  of  torsion  forming  in  the 
combination  of  the  central  and  loin  curves,  and  of  a  partial 
movement  in  the  neck,  pass  to  the  pelvis  and  to  the  upper- 
most part  of  the  breast  bone  ;  and  the  effects  of  the  lines 
of  torsion  forming  in  the  combination  of  the  neck  curve 
with  the  two  others,  making  one  curve  of  the  whole,  pass 
to  the  limbs,  and  finally  to  the  front  limbs  and  lower  jaw. 

To  sustain  the  complicated  movements  of  the  higher 
animals,  the  construction  of  the  head  joint  is  altered  from 
that  of  the  snake,  so  that  in  addition  to  the  general  ball  and 
socket  movement  there  is  a  superimposed  movement  of  the 
same  kind,  but  divided  into  two  parts,  which  belongs  especi- 
ally to  the  limbs  and  by  which  the  neck  concentrates  the 
whole  upon  its  own  curve,  with  the  shoulder-blades  and 
lower  jaw  as  bases  of  action,  and,  as  was  before  said,  with 
the  centre  of  the  lungs  and  the  head  joint  conjoined  in 
action  as  a  focus  of  force. 

The  lungs  also  are  so  constituted  that  they  act  for  the 
central  curve  in  four  parts,  the  two  lower  of  which  belong  par- 
ticularly to  the  lower  sections  of  the  torsion  lines  whose  point 


XVI 


of  origination  is  above,  and  the  two  upper  particularly  to  the 
upper  sections  of  those  lines  whose  originating  point  is 
iDelow. 

The  addition  of  limbs  to  the  locomotive  frame-work 
makes  necessary  the  addition  of  some  comparatively  small 
appendages  to  the  top  of  the  lungs,  which  fill  in  a  contrary 
direction  to  the  filling  of  the  lobe  to  which  they  are  at- 
tached. These  appendages  sustain  the  ball  and  socket 
action  at  the  root  of  the  neck,  and  their  action  in  filling  may, 
like  that  of  the  lungs  proper,  be  divided  into  four  parts. 

Two  small  neck  muscles,  attached  each  by  one  end  to  the 
head  and  by  the  other  to  the  lower  jaw,  hold  the  lungs  sus- 
pended by  a  loop  on  each  side  of  the  windpipe.  The  action 
of  these  loops,  in  releasing  the  muscles  from  the  twists  they 
receive  by  the  torsion  of  the  lungs  in  the  movements  of  the 
chest,  is  similar  to  the  action  of  the  loops  of  the  eye  muscles, 
before  spoken  of,  in  releasing  the  torsions  passing  to  the 
eyes  from  the  whole  body.  These  muscles  and  the  eye- 
muscles  together  have  as  analogues,  but  in  subordinate 
M^orking,  the  diaphragm,  its  pillars  and  the  pso£e  muscles. 

The  double  twist  action  is  the  same  whether  expanded 
in  its  workings,  as  in  the  motions  through  the  length  of  the 
ribs,  or  condensed,  as  in  the  ball  and  socket  joint  of  the 
head. 

The  various  combinations  of  the  lines  of  torsion  in  the 
three  curves  are  the  foundation  for  all  the  gaits  of  animals, 
and  for  their  halting,  which  last,  as  before  said,  when  per- 
fectly carried  out,  is  identical  with  the  act  of  **  setting-up;" 
for  the  deformity  spoken  of  is  really  a  position  in  locomo- 
tion, and  only  a  deformity  because  of  its  being  permament ; 
and  even  were  there  no  deformity  the  frame  would  need  to 
be  gathered,  which  involves  the  same  movements  as  does 
halting  on  two  sets  of  torsion  lines  simultaneously. 

The  actions  of  those  winding  lines  which  work  from  the 
direction  of  the  head  toward  the  hinder  limbs  centre  at 


XVll 


lirst  on  the  lower  jaw  ;  while  the  action  of  those  which 
work  from  the  direction  of  the  hinder  limbs  toward  the 
head  centre  at  first  on  the  shoulder-blades.  They  inter- 
change from  one  of  these  gathering  points  to  the  other, 
and  finally,  by  the  movement  of  the  winding-lines  in  the 
neck,  and  the  virtual  ball  and  socket  at  the  neck-root,  the 
control  of  all  the  forces  becomes  collected  in  the  neck,  and 
guided  by  the  head  working  on  the  shoulders  and  lower 
jaw,  with  the  eyes  as  poles  of  direction. 

By  a  continuous  raising  of  the  head,  allowing  the  neck  to 
adjust  itself  to  the  ensuing  workings  of  the  body,  without 
allowing  any  line  to  come  to  a  discharge,  the  counteractions 
of  the  various  lines  may  all  be  brought  into  gathering,  and 
thus  afterward  require  only  to  be  loosened  in  a  particular 
connection  to  bring  on  the  apjDropriate  movements. 

The  application  of  setting-up  to  the  horse  is  called  in 
Manege  language  "Suppling."  It  may  be  carried  out 
on  precisely  the  same  principles  in  the  horse  as  in  man. 

Many  years  ago  a  Frenchman,  by  the  name  of  Morquin^ 
taught,  in  New  York,  a  method  of  preparation  for  gymnastic 
exercises,  in  which,  by  forcing  the  filling  of  the .  lungs  and 
thus  bringing  on  the  movements  of  other  parts,  a  com- 
plete "setting  up"  was  effected.  This  method  may,  we 
think,  be  explained  by  one  of  the  results  of  the  theory  here 
given,  but  Mons.  Morquin  could  render  little  or  no  account 
of  the  why  and  wherefore.  This  practice  seemed  to  have 
originated  in  some  accidental  discovery  when  carrying  out 
the  idea  that  the  lungs  must  be  well  filled  as  a  basis  of 
action. 

The  methods  for  setting-up  on  horseback  are,  with  al- 
lowances for  changed  appuis,  the  same  as  for  settiag-up  on 
foot.  If  the  man  can  give  proper  action  to  the  cross  line 
which  is  alternate  to  that  whose  winding  lines  have  been 
unnaturally  confirmed,  there  then  remains  nothing  to  pre- 
vent his  following  fully  in  his  own  body  the  gatherings  and 


XVIU 


discharges  in  tlie  body  of  his  horse,  so  fully  that  there  will 
be  no  inharmonious  movement  which  shall  cause  him  to 
leave  the  saddle  in  any  degree. 

The  management  of  the  horse  consists  in  controlling  the 
lines  of  counteraction  formed  in  the  animals  body.  The 
aids  to  this  are  : — the  Bit ;  the  Spur  ;  the  Pressure  of  the 
Rein  against  the  neck ;  and  the  weighting  one  or  the  other 
Seat-bone  of  the  rider.  These  bring  into  action  or  check 
different  parts  of  the  winding-lines,  and  by  weakening  the 
working  of  their  action  or  introducing  the  alternates  upon 
them,  enable  the  rider  not  only  to  signify  his  wishes  to  the 
horse  but  to  force  compliance. 

A  short  section  is  added  on  locomotion  in  fishes  and  in 
birds. 


EEMAEKS 

ON  THE 

SETTI]^G-UP     OF     SOLDIEES,, 

HOESE    AND    FOOT, 

AND  ON  THE 

SUPPLING    OF    CAVALRY    HORSES. 


INTRODUCTION. 


§  1.  Many  are  the  expedients  wHch,  in  the  train- 
ing of  soldiers,  have  been  and  still  are  adopted,  in 
order  to  overcome  that  fault  in  the  body,  whatever 
it  may  be,  which,  in  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine 
men  out  of  every  thousand  from  civilized  nations, 
tends  to  hinder  the  man  from  marching  in  a 
straight  line,  from  discharging  his  musket  without 
destroying  his  aim,  from  cutting  perpendicularly 
with  the  edge  of  his  sabre,  and  which  likewise 
hinders  him  fiom  so  following  in  his  own  frame 
the  motions  received  from  the  frame  of  his  horse 
that  the  forces  communicated  by  this  latter  shall 
be  so  absorbed  into  and  discharged  with  the 
working  of  his  own  as  to  give  no  recoil  from  the 
saddle. 

From  the  expedient  of  carrying  "the  left  eye^ 


14 


over  the  line  of  tlie  vest  buttons,"  in  Frederick 
the  Great's  time,  to  that  of  "  fixing  the  chin  and 
pointing  the  toes"  of  the  present  day,  all  remedies 
have,  in  regard  to  marching,  been  only  more  or 
less  unsuccessful;  even  the  device  of  a  limber 
trigger  has  not  ensured  success  to  what  may  have 
been  a  good  aim;  a  "loose  hold  of  the  gripe"  still 
allows  the  sabre  to  come  down  on  its  flat ;  and  the 
various  shirkings  acquu-ed  for  eluding  the  shocks 
from  the  horse's  motion  give  only  a  laboured  firm- 
ness of  seat,  not  even  attaining  the  point  of  pre- 
venting an  uneven  riding  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
saddle,  that  chief  cause  of  the  giving  out  of  cavalry 
horses  on  long  marches.  Still  less  has  it  given 
ability  for  the  nice  perpendicular  change  of  the 
rider's  weight  from  one  seat  bone  to  the  other, 
which  forms  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  four 
*'  aids "  that  give  the  power  of  controlling  one's 
horse. 

The  motions  of  the  musket-manual  are,  probably, 
based  on  the  manner  in  which  some  perfectly 
formed  man  went  through  with  it,  but  experience 
has  shown  that,  for  the  generality  of  recruits,  its 
exact  execution^  is  simply  impossible  ;  and,  so  far 

*  The  last  external  sign  of  a  laboured,  and  therefore  imperfect, 
execution  is  a  twitching  ot  the  corners  of  the  mouth.  How  few  can 
suppress  more  obvious  proofs! 


15 


as  "  carrying  the  musket  in  the  left  hand,  balanced 
on  the  middle  finger  "  is  concerned,  this  point  seems 
now  to  be  about  given  up  for  a  clutch  with  the 
right  hand,  which  does  anything  else  rather  than 
conduce  to  the  setting-up  of  the  soldier. 

A  similar  failure  in  exact  central  action,  and  the 
like  eccentric  results  are  noticeable  in  animals 
whose  motions  are  habitually  controlled  by  the 
human  hand.  Almost  all  horses  bear  more  on  one 
side  of  the  bit  than  on  the  other ;  each  has  a  favour- 
ite leg.  Do  any  wear  out  the  shoes  of  both  sides 
ahke  ? 

§  2.  When  we  observe  that  the  most  muscular 
men  are,  often,  not  only  less  active,  less  supple, 
and  less  enduring  than  others,  but  also  that  they 
are  not  always  the  most  powerful,  it  should  seem 
probable  that  the  force  of  muscular  contraction 
often  acts  at  a  disadvantage,  and  is  partially  lost 
from  the  want  of  a  perfectly  concentric  action  of 
all  parts  of  the  bony  framework  on  which  the 
muscles  brace  themselves. 

We  assume  then  that  some  fault  in  the  play  of 
the  bony  skeleton  is  the  radical  cause  of  the  sol- 
dier's deficiencies  in  movement,  and  it  will  be  our 
^ndeavoui-  to  ascertain  the  nature  of  this  fault,  as 
also,  if  possible,  to  search  out  some  simple  and 


16 


thorough  means,  not  only  for  correcting  its  mani- 
festations, but  for  restoring,  the  animal  machinery, 
at  least  for  the  moment,  to  perfect  working  order. 

§  3.  There  seems  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
body  of  man,  more  than  the  body  of  any  other 
animal,  was  intended  to  have  a  one-sided  action. 
Horses  driven  or  ridden  by  one-sided  men  may 
indeed  be  shaped  into  using  always  the  right,  or 
always  the  left  leg  as  the  leading  limb,  or  one  par- 
ticular side  of  the  jaw  as  their  favorite  resisting 
point.  Other  animals  which  such  men  train  may 
exhibit  traces  of  similar  tendencies,  possibly  the 
offspring  of  these  animals  may  have  them  from 
their  birth  ;  but  we  see  no  like  partiality,  as  to  the 
use  of  his  Hmbs  or  jaw,  in  the  lion  or  tiger  as  they 
grasp  or  tear  their  food,  nor  in  the  squirrel,  as  fol- 
lowing, with  precise  adaptation  of  his  body,  the 
direction  of  his  eyes — he  leaps  from  branch  to 
branch.  Some  particular  point  reached  in  the 
respiratory  action,  or  some  casual  inclination  of 
the  head  would  rather  seem  to  determine  any 
choice  made  by  them  as  to  which  side  shall  com- 
mence or  lead  a  movement. 

W©  may  add  that,  although  with  civilized  man 
the  right  hand  is  almost  always  the  ready  hand, 
and  the  left  leg  the  bracing  leg,  yet  the  not  in- 


17 


frequent  occurrence  of  the  opposite  peculiarities 
strengthens  the  analogical  proof  just  given,  that 
this  is  not  a  necessary  state  of  things.  From  the 
Sacred  History  it  would  seem  (comparing  1st 
Chronicles,  xii — 2,  and  Judges,  xx— 16),  whatever 
may  be  the  etymology  of  the  Hebrew  word  for 
left-handed,  that  the  men  who  could  sling  stones 
at  an  hair  breadth,  and  not  miss,  were  such  as 
used  hofk  hands  alike. 

§  4.  On  the  principle  that  the  inequality  of 
strength  in  the  arms  was  to  be  remedied,  consid- 
erable attention  was  at  one  time  paid  in  the  Brit- 
ish army  to  exercising  the  left  arm.  It  might  ap- 
pear to  be  a  sufficient  remedy  for  grown  men  that 
they  should  exercise  the  neglected  arm,  and  for 
children,  that  they  should  be  educated  in  exercis- 
ing both  arms  equallj^ ;  but,  in  the  former  case,  the 
results  of  so  many  years'  previous  habit  having  to 
be  overcome,  the  remedy  hardly  reaches  the  centre 
of  motion;-  and,  in  the  latter  case,  so  long  as 
children  are  subject  to  the  prevailing  customs,  par- 
ticularly those   of   always  reading  to   the  right, 

♦Perhaps  the  nearest  approach  to  a  fuudamental remedy  is  the  rule 
given  in  the  French,  and  in  the,  from  them  translated,  U.  S.  Cavalry 
Tactics  to  "  keep  the  right  shoulder  forward,"  but,  unless  there  be  a 
good  understanding  that  this  means  the  upper  right  side  of  the  chest, 
it,  too,  may  fall  under  the  category  of  covering  one  fault  by  another. 


18 

which  gives  an  unequal  exercise  of  direction  to  the 
eyes ;  and  of  always  writing  with  the  right  hand, 
and  to  the  right ;  ^  as  well  as  to  the  effects  of 
every  instrument  being  adapted  to  the  right  hand, 
it  should  seem  that  some  more  fundamental  means 
were  necessary. 

§  5.  If  we  may  discover  any  movement,  or  series 
of  movements,  by  which  a  man  can,  as  it  were, 
untwist  his  frame  from  its  distortion,  and  then 
hold  it  steadily  for  a  time  in  proper  working  po- 
sition, we  shall  give  to  every  muscle  the  opportu- 
nity for  perfect  action,  and  this,  again  and  again 
repeated,  may  restore  the  weaker  one  of  every 
pair  of  muscles  to  an  equahty  v/ith  its  fellow. 

We  offer  the  following  attempt  to  discover  and 
explain  such  movements  for  what  it  may  be  worth  : 

The  action  of  the  Spine  must  in  the  first  place  he 
dearly  traced  out, 

§  6.  The  first  step  m  pursuance  of  this  design 
must  plainly  be  to  trace  out  the  working  of  the 
skeleton  in  that  animal  which  accomphshes  loco- 
motion by  the  simplest  means. 

§  7.  The  general  figure  of  motion  in  man  seems 
obvious  enough  (although  to  describe  it  minutely 

♦Even  did  we  write  with  the  left  hand,  it  is  evident  that  only  when 
writing  to  the  left  the  action  would  be  properly  changed. 


19 


be  no  easy  task) — but  the  positions  of  every  sepa- 
rate point  of  this  figure  depend  on  the  movement 
of  some  more  inward  and  more  central  point. 
Thus  the  hip-bone  which  carries  the  thigh-bone 
socket  is  a  more  inward  point  than  the  thigh-bone 
and  is  a  controlling  basis  for  its  motion,  as  also 
for  that  of  the  leg  and  foot.  So  is  the  motion  of 
the  shoulder-blade,  which  carries  the  arm-bone 
socket,  a  controlhng  basis  for  the  arm,  the  fore- 
arm and  the  hand. 

Further,  both  the  hip-bones  and  shoulder-blades 
depend  for  a  basis  of  movement  upon  the  spine 
and  indeed  finally  upon  the  head,  this  last  being  so 
situated  in  respect  to  the  spine  that  the  relative 
positions  of  the  articulating  surfaces  in  their  com- 
mon joint,  at  the  summit  of  the  neck,  determine 
the  shape  assumed  by  the  spine,  and  consequently 
the  angles  at  which  the  forces  acting  from  the 
spine  press  down  their  points  d'appui  against  the 
ground,  and  thus  give  the  direction  of  the  ensuing 
movement. 

§  8.  The  hip-hones  are  soldered  into  one  peice 
with  the  lower  end  of  the  back-bone,  and  therefore 
depend  directly  upon  it  for  every  movement.  The 
shoidder-Uades,  on  the  other  hand,  are  connected 
with  both  the  back-bone  and  neck  (the  two  together 


20 

^re  called  the  spine),  not  solidly  but  by  the  inter- 
vention of  muscles;  so  that,  although  the  arms 
must,  in  all  completed  motions,  finally  conform  to 
the  movements  of  the  back-bone,  they  have  yet  a 
certain  liberty  of  action,  superior  to  that  of  the  legs, 
and  which  is  determined  rather  by  their  connec- 
tions with  the  head  and  neck,  than  by  their  union 
with  other  parts.  The  arms  are  therefore  more 
particularly  Jiead-limbs,^  while  the  legs  may  be 
called  body  limbs. 

§  9.  We,  therefore,  assume  that,  so  far  as  the 
skeleton  is  concerned,  motion  originates  in  the  spine, 
is  directed  by  the  head,  and  is  only  followed  up  by  the 
limbs. 

§  10.  The  researches  of  comparative  anatomists 
have  demonstrated,  that  the  closest  analogy  exists 
between  relative  parts  of  all  the  animals  classed 
as  vertebratse  (viz.,  such  as  have  a  spine  composed 
of  bony  blocks,  or  vertebrae,  joined  by  Hgaments 
into  one  flexible  rod).  For  example,  that  the  fore- 
legs and  fore-feet  (heads-Umbs  of  quadrupeds) 
answer  to  the  arms  and  hands  of  a  man,  to  the 
wings  of  birds,  and  to  the  pectoral  fins  of  fishes. 

*  Comparative  anatomists  have  shown  the  propriety  of  the  name 
"  Head-limbs"  by  tracing  analogues  of  the  shoulder-blades  in  some  of 
the  lower  animals  (as  fishes  &c.,)  in  actual  and  close  attachment  to  the 
head. 


21 


They  have  shown  that  where,  for  lower  animals, 
certain  parts  of  the  higher  ones  disappear,  repre- 
sentative pieces  may  yet  often  be  found,  as  for  ex- 
ample, pieces  of  bone,  apparently  useless,  but 
answering  in  position  to  the  hip-bones  of  higher 
animals,  on  the  bodies  of  some  serpents.  They 
have  also  made  it  very  probable  that  Ugs  and  arms 
are  hut  metamorphosed  ribs. 

§  11.  From  this  close  analogy  of  structure,  we 
may  infer  a  close  analogy  as  to  the  principles 
of  locomotion  among  these  animals,  and  we  may, 
therefore,  look  to  those  in  which  the  motions  of 
the  spine  are  the  most  obvious,  and  in  which  these 
motions  most  immediately  produce  locomotion,  for 
a  clue  to  its  more  obscure  action  in  quadrupeds 
and  man. 

Assuming,  then,  that  the  spine  is  the  true  basis 
of  all  movement ;  that  its  deformity,  brought  about 
by  permanent  abnormal  flexures,  arising  from  an 
unequal  counter-action  between  muscles  intended 
to  balance  each  other,  is  (where  the  frame  is 
otherwise  healthy)  the  true  cause  of  distorted  ac- 
tion ;  and,  that,  to  redress  the  shape  of  the  spine,  in 
these  cases,  ivill  be  to  redress  the  faults  of  motion  in 
all  parts  dependent  on  the  spine,  we  proceed,  in 
the  first  place,  to  inquire  how  the  spine  acts. 
2 


22 
PAET  I. 

THE    snake's    motion    CONSIDERED    AS    IN    A    SIMPLE' 
ELASTIC   EOD. 

§  12.  The  snake  seems  to  afford  the  best  oppor- 
tunity for  observing  the  play  of  the  spine.  Its 
locomotion  is  obviously  produced,  simply  by  the 
action  of  its  back-bone  upon  its  ribs,  the  remote 
end  of  the  ribs  being  thrust  against  the  ground,, 
so  as  to  propel  the  animal  in  the  direction  of  the 
general  resultant  of  all  the  forces  developed. 

§  13.  On  studying  the  mode  of  locomotion  in 
the  snake,  it  is,  we  think,  evident  that  this  animal 
propels  its  body  with  a  succession  of  undulatory 
curves,  the  flexures  of  which  alternately  replace 
each  other  in  such  a  manner  that  those  portions 
of  the  body  which,  during  one  act  of  propulsion, 
are  either  convex  or  concave,  become,  respectively, 
concave  or  convex  for  the  next  act. 

§  14.  If  we  take  a  piece  of  twine,  or,  stiU  better,, 
of  whip-lash  (which,  for  description's  sake,  we  will 
suppose  held  perpendicularly  before  the  face),  and,, 
holding  an  end  in  either  hand,  turn  these  ends  in 
contrary  directions,  so  as  to  twist  the  intermediate 
portion,  we  shall  find  that  this  central  part  wilL 
xeadily  form  itself  into  flexures  similar  to  those 


23 


which  a  snake  produces  in  its  body  during  loco- 
motion. 

For  future  nomenclature,  we  may  liken  each 
division  of  the  flexures,  although  the  curvature  be 
not  in  a  single  plane,  to  the  letter  S,  and  we  shall 
then  have  an  ess  proper  and  an  ess  reversed  al- 
ternately throughout  the  series. 

If  we  next  completely  untwist  the  piece  of  whip- 
lash, and  then,  with  the  dii'ections  of  the  counter- 
turns  exchanged,  twist  it  again,  we  shall  have 
similar  results,  with  the  only  exception  that  where 
the  curvature  was  a  proper  S,  it  will  now  be  a 
reversed  S,  and  vice  versa.  In  other  words,  re- 
garding only  the  lateral  aspects,  where  there  vras  a 
concavity  to  the  right  we  shall  have  a  concavity  to 
the  left,  and  where  there  was  a  convexity  to  the 
right  we  shall  have  a  convexity  to  the  left. 

We  shall  call  each  separate  section  of  torsion  an  S, 
half  a  section  a  C. 

§  15.  Were  the  piece  of  whip-lash  of  perfectly 
uniform  consistence,  and  were  all  the  rectilineal 
elements  of  its  cylinder  drawn  mth  exact  equahty 
of  force,  it  may  be  shown,  we  think,  that  a  series 
of  somewhat  one-sided  cones,  alternately  point  to 
point  and  base  to  base,  would  be  the  result.  But 
by  twisting  it  in  the  manner  described,  one  set  of 


24 


elements  is  more  particularly  drawn,  and  these  are 
the  first  ones  to  become  stretched.  It  is  along 
these  elongated  lines  that  the  convex  aspects  of 
the  turns  occur,  while  the  other  parts  are  com,pressed 
into  concaves. 

§  16.  If  for  the  wliip-lash  there  be  substituted 
a  firm  but  elastic  cylindrical  rod,  the  two  diagonal 
forces  of  rotary  counter-traction,  supplied  by  the 
thumbs  and  fingers,  may  be  replaced  by  two  forces 
of  diagonal  GownteY-'pressiire,  the  points  of  applica- 
tion of  which  will  be  situated  at  opposite  edges  of 
terminal  horizontal  planes  at  the  ends  of  the  rod. 

Replacing  then  the  piece  of  whip-lash  by  an 
elastic  cylindrical  rod,  terminated  at  each  end  by 
plane  surfaces  cut  perpendicularly  to  its  length,  the 
rod  being  held  perpendicularly  before  the  face ; 
replacing  also  the  action  of  the  fingers  by  two 
compound  forces,  consisting  each  of  a  force  of 
pressure  in  the  perpendicular  plane  and  a  force  of 
rotation,  around  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  in  the 
horizontal,  the  latter  drawing  the  substance  of  the 
cylinder  with  it ;  let  these  forces  be  applied,  one 
on  each  terminal  plane  near  the  circumference,  and 
at  diagonally  opposite  points,  and  while  the  forces 
of  pressure  act  in  contrary  directions,  let  the  forces 
of  rotation  act  also  in  opposition  to  each  other. 


25 


§  17.  We  shall  call  the  diagonal  points,  at  which 
the  compound  forces  are  applied,  ^'Points  of  Ajjpli- 
cation,''  and  as  we  confine  ourselves  to  rotaticm  from 
front  to  rear,  there  will  be  for  every  S  two  diagonal 
pairs,  or  four  points  in  all.  The  diagonal  pairs 
will  replace  each  other  in  successive  counter-actions 
between  their  points. 

§  18.  We  shall,  for  easier  illustration,  always 
consider  an  example  in  which  the  opposition  of  the 
left  upper  and  right  lower  forces  begins  the  succes- 
sive counter-actions.  In  this  the  left  upper  force 
rotates  from  the  front  centre  of  the  border  of  its 
plane,  by  the  left,  to  the  rear  centre.  The  right 
loioer force  likewise  from  the  front  centre,  but  by 
the  right  to  the  rear.  The  action  of  the  other  pair 
of  diagonal  points  will  then,  mutatis  mutandis,  al- 
ternate with  these. 

§  19.  The  theory  of  the  twists  may  then,  we  think, 
be  discussed  as  follows  : 

If  we  first  bend  the  rod  in  the  simplest  manner, 
i.e.,  by  pressure,  without  rotation,  appHed  at  j)erpen- 
dicularly,  not  diagonally,  opposite  points,  so  that  it 
shall  take  the  shape  of  a  C,  then  a  spring  will  be 
formed ;  and  if,  while  one  end  of  this  spring  is  fixed, 
the  other  end  be  liberated  so  that  it  can  pass  in 
one  line  only,  the  force  of  the   spring  will  be  ex- 


26 


erted  in  the  direction  of  tliat  line.  For  example,  if 
we  suppose  a  straight  tube  of  smaller  diameter  than 
the  depth  of  the  concavity  of  the  C,  to  be  held  oyer 
the  upper  end  of  the  rod,  while  the  lower  end  is  im- 
movably fixed,  the  spring  will  discharge  itself  in 
the  line  of  the  tube. 

§  20.  Let  us  next  apply  the  counter-pressures  at 
diagonally  opposite  points.  The  pressure  from 
either  point  forms,  as  before,  a  concave  beneath 
the  point,  but  this  concave  no  longer  forms  one 
with  that  under  the  other  point.  On  the  contrary, 
the  concaves  being  now  on  opposite  sides  are  each 
met  by  the  pressure  of  an  intermediate  point,  and 
form  an  S,  or  two  C  C  with  their  hollows  in  oppo- 
site directions. 

The  straight  line  joining  the  two  points  of  diag- 
onal pressure,  must  cross  the  rod  in  a  part  of  its 
length  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  rod,  and 
the  ratio  of  the  pressures  to  each  other.  In  this 
crossing  all  counter -tivisting  forces  from  the  points 
of  pressure  will  meet,  and  here  more  especially  op- 
pose each  other. 

We  shall  designate  by  the  expression  "  Cross- 
linej"  this  portion  of  the  line  joining  the  two  diag- 
onal points.  This  "cross-line"  plays  a  very  im- 
portant part  in  the  following  theory  of  locomotion. 


27 

land  as  there  will  be  two  sucli  lines,  the  one  pro- 
duced by  the  antagonism  of  the  left  upper  and  right 
lower  forces — the  other  by  that  of  the  right  upper 
and  left  lower,  we  shall  discriminate  the  cross-lines 
as  left-riglit  and  right-left  respectively.  We  shall 
also  name  that  end  of  either  cross-line  on  which 
an  upper  force  draws  the  upper  end,  and  that  on 
which  a  lower  force  draws  the  lower  end, 

§  21.  It  is  particularly  to  be  observed  that  the 
curvature  under  any  point  of  pressure  is  always  con- 
cave. 

§  22.  Straightening  the  rod  again,  let  the  point 
at  which  the  upper  diagonal  pressure  is  applied 
(according  to  our  standard  example  the  left  upper) 
be  placed  at  the  front  centre  of  its  plane,  and  then 
moved  in  rotation  horizontally,  the  pressure  con- 
tinuing, and  let  the  lower  end  of  the  rod  be  pre- 
vented from  following  the  movement  so  that  it 
offers  merely  a  passive  resistance  to  it.  There  will 
then  be  a  constantly  increasing  pressure  exerted 
below  the  moving  point  by  the  reaction  through 
the  stretched  linear  elements  of  the  rod. 

The  direct  effects  of  the  traction  will  be  in  a  wind- 
ing line  passing  from  the  point  of  apphcation,  by 
the  front,  half  way  around  the  rod,  to  the  point 
where  it  meets  the  resistance  from  the  stationary 


28 


lower  point  of  application,  and  which  point  is  in 
effect  the  "  upper  end  of  the  cross-line." 

So  far  as  the  rotary  traction  from  the  upper 
point  continues  its  course,  by  drawing  on  the  upper 
end  of  the  "  cross-line  "  (here  situated  on  the  right 
side)  it  will  produce  a  continuation  of  its  winding 
line  from  that  end,  by  the  rear,  haK  way  around 
the  lower  part  of  the  rod,  to  a  point  at  the  lower 
plane  section,  perpendicularly  under  and  of  course 
collateral  with  its  (the  upper  left  point  of  applica- 
tion) own  position.  We  shall  thus  have  a  hehcal 
line  completely  around  the  rod  from  a  point  on  the 
border  of  the  upper  plane  section  to  a  point  per- 
pendicularly under  it  on  the  border  of  the  lower 
plane  section.  This  line,  however,  is  interrupted 
in  its  continuity  of  force  by  the  "cross-Hne," 
which  (kept  in  place  by  the  passive  resistance  of 
the  lower  pohit  of  application)  continues  the  wind- 
ing hne  in  just  such  proportion  as  it  is  moved  from 
its  place  against  the  resistance  of  its  other  end. 

§  23.  The  drawing  on  the  substance  of  the  rod 
along  the  winding  line  will,  by  the  reacting  pressure, 
produce  concavities  under  the  varying  positions 
of  the  rotating  point,  and  the  hne  of  these  con- 
caves, as  also  of  their  corresponding  convexes,  will^ 
of  course,  likewise  be  hehcal. 


29 


So  far,  also,  as  tlie  end  of  the  "  cross-Hue "  is- 
drawn  into  rotation  it  Tvill  produce  concaves  under 
its  course  in  the  continuation  of  the  mnding  line. 

Were  the  diagonally  opi^osite  lower  "  point  of 
application"  in  active  working,  it  would  produce 
another  winding  hne  in  the  opposite  direction,  un- 
der similar  conditions,  viz  :  from  the  right  side  of 
the  lower  plane,  by  the  front,  to  the  lower  end  of 
the  cross-hne,  and  thence  (this  cross-line  end  being 
moved)  completing  the  circuit,  by  the  rear,  to  the 
right  side  of  the  upper  plane  section. 

§  24.  Two  other  such  "  winding  hues  "  may  be 
developed  fi-om  the  other  two  diagonal  "points 
of  apphcation."  At  present  we  only  consider  the 
diagonal  points  as  acting  by  pairs,  alternately. 
The  consideration  of  the  two  pairs,  acting  simul- 
taneously, will  be  taken  up  further  on. 

§  25.  It  will  be  observed  then,  that  each  of  these 
winding  Hues  consists  of  two  sections  ;  the  pri- 
mary  one,  which  passes  from  the  point  of  applica- 
cation  to  its  end  of  the  "  cross-line ;"  and  a  sec- 
ondary one,  formed  by  the  traction  from  the  cross- 
line  end,  which  passes  to  a  point  situated  in  a 
perpendicular  line  fi'om  the  originatiQg  point  of 
application. 

The  twisting  of  a  cross-line   is  caused  by  the 

2- 


30 


meeting  of  the  primary  sections  of  tlie  two  diag- 
onal winding  lines.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
secondary  sections  terminate  each  respectively  at 
what  will  be  the  point  of  application  of  the  alter- 
nate opposite  line."^ 

§  26.  We  shall  designate  each  of  the  four  wind- 
ing Hnes  by  naming  its  point  of  departure  which, 
since  their  courses  are  entirely  distinct,  will  fully 
distinguish  it  thus  :  Upper  lejt  luinding  line — loiver 
right  ivinding  line —  Upper  right  ivinding  line — lower 
left  ivinding  line. 

§  27.  As  regards  the  concaves  produced  by  the 
revolution  of  a  single  point  of  apphcation  against 
the  simple  passive  resistance  of  its  diagonal  point, 
those  concaves  more  directly  under  the  active 
point  will  be  the  deepest  and  shortest,  and  in  each 
C  there  ivill  he  two  gradations  of  curvature,  of 
lohich  that  most  remote  from  the  active  point  ivill  he 
the  longest  and  least  sharply  inflexed.  This  last 
point  is  of  considerable  moment. 

§  28.  So  soon  as  either  one  of  a  pair  of  diagonal 
forces,  drawing  on  its  winding  line,  meets  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  resistance  through  the  cross-line, 
whether  from  the  active  working,  or  the  passive 
resistance  of  the  other  point,  its  traction  will  be- 

*  To  complete  this  section  see  note,  §  39,  and  particularly  §  201. 


31 


come  more  or  less  completely  absorbed  in  the 
cross-line,  where  it  has  to  meet  the  contrary  turn 
of  the  opposite  cross-Hne  end. 

Each  point  of  application  will  move  its  end  of 
the  cross-line  in  a  direction  contrary  to  its  own 
ooTirse.  Thus,  the  left  upper  point  of  application 
will  move  its  (the  right  upper  end)  of  the  cross-line  to 
the  left,  by  the  front,  and  the  right  loiver  point  wiU 
move  its  end  {the  left  loiver)  to  the  right,  also  by  tlie 
front.  A  new  S  cannot  develop  in  the  cross-hne, 
but  the  influence  of  such  an  S  will  spread  out 
from  it  into  the  C  C  of  the  original  curve. 

This  new  S,  arising  in  the  centre  of  the  old  one, 
from  the  reaction  of  the  cross-line,  will  be  twisted  in 
precisely  contrary  directions  to  the  latter,  and  so  far 
as  its  influence  develops,  will  tend  to  reverse  the 
original  curvatures.  In  this  way  each  upper  end  of 
a  cross-line  will,  as  it  were,  turn  up  into  the  C  above 
it,  and  each  lower  end  down  into  the  G  below  it — re- 
versing the  curvatures  from  their  positions  and  car- 
rying a  similar  general  effect  throughout  the  C. 

This  principle,  that  every  set  of  torsions  will,  when 
(Mrried  to  a  certain  point,  tend  to  reverse  themselves, 
lies  at  the  foundation  of  the  tlieory  of  locomotion. 

§  29.  The  new  curvatures  advance,  not  as  the 
old  ones,  from  the  extremities  to  the  centre,  but 


32 


from  the  centre  to  the  extremities,  and,  if  the  orig- 
inal curvatures  could  be  discharged,  and  the  ex-- 
tremities  moved  across  each  other,  we  should  have 
the  first  S  replaced  by  another  of  reversed  flex- 
ures, and  we  should  have  the  discharge  of  the  orig- 
inal curve  of  the  rod  so  constrained  by  the  nas- 
cent one  that  its  direction  might  be  made  entirely 
perpendicular  in  both  C  C ;  in  a  similar  manner  but 
much  more  accurately  than  the  discharge  of  the 
simple  C  curve  mentioned  in  §  19,  was  constrained 
by  the  tube  held  over  it. 

The  power  of  the  nascent  new  shape  will  ba 
largely  exhausted  in  thus  constraining  the  direc- 
tion of  the  spring  from  the  old,  but  a  portion 
would  remain  to  join  the  alternating  points  of  ap- 
plication in  impressing  the  similarly  shaped  new 
curve  upon  the  rod. 

§  30.  If  we  examine  more  closely  the  lines  of  di- 
rect and  of  reacting  traction  we  think  that  the 
manner  in  which  a  change  of  curvatures  would 
take  place,  if  appropriate  free  articulations  in  the 
course  of  the  rod  allowed  the  discharge  of  the  first 
cui've,  may  be  explained  as  follows  : 

The  contrary  curvature  arising  in  each  C  is 
constraining  the  direction  of  the  old  curvature 
throughout,  and  incipiently  altering  it  at  the  cross 


33 


line  end.  Now,  if  we  conceive  of  a  half  revolution 
with  a  ball  and  socket  joint  at  the  junction  of  the 
two  C  C,  and  at  the  centre  of  each,  we  can  suppose 
the  escape  of  the  old  curve,  and  that  the  alternate 
diagonal  forces,  coming  immediately  into  play,  ac- 
cept the  central  parts  of  the  new  C  C  from  the 
cross-line  ends,  and,  forming  the  remote  parts  from 
the  extremities,  join  in  reciprocal  counter-action 
by  new  cross-lines. 

The  reversal  of  the  curvatures  would  be  accom- 
panied by  a  spring,  in  each  direction  from  the 
cross-line  as  a  point  d'appui. 

§  31.  The  above  gives  a  spring  in  two  directions, 
and  no  advance  is  made.  To  accomplish  progres- 
sive or  retrogressive  locomotion  the  spring  must 
have  place  in  only  one  direction  with  a  point  of 
first  appui  at  one  of  the  extremities  of  the  rod,  in 
order  to  move  in  the  direction  of  the  other.  The 
cross-liae  gives  the  requisite  appui  for  the  C  remote 
from  the  fixed  appui  (the  ground  or  other  basis), 
and  the  reaction  between  this  and  the  cross-line 
furnishes  the  spring  for  the  nearer  one,  and  also 
sustains  the  spring  of  the  first. 

§  32.  After  the  upper  point  of  application  has 
formed  the  general  cui'vatures  of  its  winding  line, 
its  further  action  will  displace  its  end  of  the  cross- 


34 


line  toward  its  own  side.  This  displacement  of 
tlie  upper  end  of  the  cross-line  will  check  the  simi- 
lar movement  of  the  lower  end  to  the  opposite  side, 
when  the  diagonal  lower  point  of  apphcation  acts. 
Consequently  when  the  "lower  point  of  apphca- 
tion," forming  its  "secondaiT  section"  first,  has 
prepared  the  upper  C  for  discharge,  by  introduc- 
ing into  it  a  counter-ti'action  and  twist,  and,  next, 
comes  to  form  its  own  "  piimary  section,"  by  mov- 
ing the  lower  end  of  the  "cross-line,"  it  will  find 
this  end  immoveably  fixed,  and  the  forces  gen- 
erated by  its  rotation  will  thus  be  brought  to  bear 
against  the  appui  of  lower  end  of  the  rod  on  the 
ground^  (not  against  the  cross-line)  and  be  kept 
against  the  groimd  imtil  the  last  moment  of  the 
general  discharge,  when  only,  the  lower  end  of 
the  cross-line  may  be  moved. 

Thus,  the  upper  C  being  discharged,  the  lower  C 
will  immediately  follow,  the  latter  acting,  not 
against  the  cross-hne,  but  in  hannony  with  the 
upper  C  against  the  upper  terminal  plane. 

§  33.  The  point  of  appui  on  the  groimd  for  the 
lower  end  will  be  on  the  side  to  which  the  whole 
cross-line  is  maintained  diu'ing  the  action,  /.  e.,  the 

*  If  the  lower  cioss-line  end  be  Hxecl  to  the  left,  this  appiu  will  be 
on  the  left  side,  and  vice  versa. 


35 


side  collateral  with  the  upper  point  of  application. 

§  34.  Were  the  rod  laid  horizontally  on  the  ground 
with  the  lower  end  at  the  rear,  and  the  ground  appui 
of  the  now  rear  end  provided  for  by  some  projection, 
the  now  anterior  C  might  at  its  convex  side  be 
provided  with  an  independent  appui  on  the  ground, 
which  should  aid,  not  in  projecting  it  forward,  but 
in  forming  the  counter-actions  which  give  the 
spring.  Tlds  additional  appui,  by  collecting  force 
from  the  anterior  C,  would  raise  it  from  the  ground, 
and  not  being  on  the  side  first  thrust  forward  by 
the  changing  curvature,  would  leave  the  ground  after 
the  rear  point  of  appui. 

§  35.  We  have  considered  only  one  S  curve,  but, 
if  there  were  to  be  a  succession  of  them,  the  ac- 
tion generated  from  one  "  point  of  application " 
might  be  transferred  from  one  S  to  the  other  until 
all  were  thrown  into  form.  In  this  case  the  junc- 
tions of  every  two  C  C  (of  the  S  S,  marked  off  fi'om 
the  top  downward),  even  when  they  belonged  to 
different  S  S,  might  all  be  considered  as  contrary 
"  cross-lines,"  in  reference  to  each  other,  but  we 
shall  find  it  more  consonant  with  facility  of  explan- 
ation to  suppose  fresh  "points  of  application"  at  the 
terminal  planes  of  junction  of  all  S  S,  and  "  tjross- 
lines  at  the  junction  of  their  C  C." 


36 
PAET  IT. 

APPLICATION   TO   THE   MOVEMENTS   OF   THE   SNAKE. 

§  36.  The  actions  and  reactions  which  we  have: 
described  for  the  rod  are,  we  concei-ve,  those  which 
take  place  in  the  body  of  the  snake,  and  which  pro- 
duce its  locomotion. 

The  two  pairs  of  antagonistic  forces,  as  then 
brought  into  play,  represent  and  are  the  resultants 
of  the  general  muscular  action  of  the  animal,  ad- 
ded to  the  elasticity  of  its  ribs. 

The  various  articulations  of  the  spine,  head  and 
ribs  allow  the  discharge  of  the  different  alternating 
twists. 

§  37.  The  head  of  the  snake  is  coupled  to  the 
back-bone  by  a  perfect  ball  and  socket  joint.  Of 
the  two  parts  of  this  joint,  the  ball  is  carried  by 
the  head,  and  the  socket  by  the  head-end  of  the 
back-bone. 

In  descriptions  of  the  snake's  action  we  must 
change  the  terms  upper  and  lower  used  in  relation 
to  the  rod,  to  anterior  and  posterior. 

The  head-joint  then  being  a  ball  and  socket,  the 
equivalents  of  the  "  points  of  application  "  and  the 
results  of  the  "  winding  lines  "  in  the  rod,  would, 
as  represented  at  the  head-joint,  in  its  actual  or 


37 


relative  movements,  be  as  follows.     We  take  the 
left  upper  and  right  lower  counter-actions. 

(a)  Accompanying  the  formation  of  the  kft  tipper 
winding  line,  the  left  side  of  the  head  hall,  acting  as  a 
point  of  appHcation,  revolves  outward  and  backward. 
This  extends  to  its  cross-line  end,  and  then  forms 
the  secondary  section  of  the  anterior  winding  line. 

{a')  Accompanying  the  movement  of  the  upper 
end  of  the  cross-line,  the  pressure  of  the  head-ball 
turns  in  its  course,  passing  forward  and  to  the  left,  a 
movement  which,  when  constrained  by  the  action 
of  the  right  posterior  line,  is  made  directly  forward. 
This  moves  the  cross-line  ends  and  draws  tight  the 
primary  section  of  the  upper  winding  line. 

(b)  The  tractions  of  the  right  lower  Tvdnding  line 
cannot  work  at  the  head,  and  those  of  the  left 
upper  line  be  maintained,  unless  by  moving  the 
socket.  The  draioing  of  the  right  loiver  loinding 
line  luould  rotate  the  right  side  of  the  socket  outward 
and  backward.  This  extends  to  its  cross-line  end, 
and  then  forms  the  secondary  section  of  the  lower 
winding  Hne.  Its  action  at  the  anterior  end  of 
the  socket  resembles  that  of  the  condyle  at  its 
posterior  end. 

(p')  The  action  of  the  lower  end  of  the  cross-line 


38 


will  give  to  the  socket  a  forward  moyement  with  a 
turn  to  the  right,  but  when  constrained  by  the 
action  of  the  other  winding  line  directly  forward, 
a'  and  h'  combined  tend  to  liberate  the  head-joint, 
but,  as  will  be  noticed  further  on,  the  locomotive 
gathering  requires  that  a  considerable  part  of  h' 
precede  h. 

§  38.  The  outward  motion  of  the  right  side  of 
the  socket,  if  transformed  into  motion  of  the  left 
side  of  the  head-ball,  would  double  it,  and  the 
■same  for  the  motion  of  the  head-ball  in  relation  to 
the  socket  motion. 

§  39.  We  think,  then,  that  we  may,  for  our 
purposes,  describe  the  movements,  actual  and  rela- 
tive, in  the  head-joint,  as  follows,  for  the  left-right 
opposition  of  forces. 

{a)  The  head-hall  performs  a  rotary  movement 
to  the  left  and  backward,  pressing  downward  on 
the  left  lateral  heniisphere  of  the  socket.  This 
pressure  passes  forward. 

{h)  The  right-haK  hemisphere  of  the  socket 
performs  a  rotary  movement  to  the  right  and 
backward,  at  the  same  time  drawing  itself  away 
from  the  corresponding  part  of  the  head-ball,  and 
consequently  raising  the  left  side  of  the  socket  under 


39 


the  active  side  of  the  head-ball,  and  increasing  the 
pressure  exerted  by  it.^ 

The  socket  also  moves  forward. 

§  40.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  outward 
movements,  both  of  head-ball  and  socket,  are  in 
opposition  to  the  central  forward  movement  of 
the  head-ball,  and  the  force  of  each  movement 
being  retained  in  the  body  by  the  setting  of  the 
muscles,  there  will  be  a  straining  point  between 
the  head-ball  and  socket,  about  the  centre  of  the 
joint. 

If  the  advance  of  the  socket,  which  finally 
reheves  this  strain,  were  made  in  anticipation  of 
the  outward  rotation  of  the  socket,  the  joint  would 
not  be  freed  until  this  rotation  were  accomplished. 

§  41.  These  different  positions  of  the  head-baU 
answering  to  those  of  the  upper,  now  front  points 
of  application,  act  in  conjunction  with  a  greater  or 
less  number  of  subordinate  front  "  points  of  appli- 
cation" at  the  junction  of  the  different  S  S  formed 
in  the  body  of  the  snake.  As  mentioned  in  §  35, 
these  points  are  similar  to  the  cross-Line  points, 
but,  it  seems  to  us,  that  it  is  only  the  section  planes 

*  This  separation  is  caused  by  the  posterior  winding  line,  and  this  line 
participates,  throughout  its  course,  in  having  its  elements  of  pressure 
reflected  to  the  opposite  side,  as  are  those  of  the  separating  socket,  in 
fact,  to  the  convex  sides. 


40 


across  every  second  change  of  C  which  primarily 
act  in  connection  with  the  originating  movement, 
or  winding  line  formed  by  the  leading  point  of  ap- 
pHcation.  The  intermediate  planes  do  not  become 
planes  of  pressure  until  the  movement  of  the  sub- 
sidiary point  of  appHcation  [^.  e.,  not  the  leading 
point]  affects  the  cross-lines.  For  this  and  for 
other  reasons,  we  find  it  more  convenient  to  treat 
of  the  planes  at  the  commencement  and  ending  of 
S  S  as  containing  points  of  application. 

§  42.  The  winding  lines  from  the  head  having 
been  formed,  and  a  succession  of  heUcal  turns 
shaped  against  the  passive  resistance  of  the  succes- 
sive posterior  points  of  application,  then  active 
counter-action  begins  from  the  rearmost  of  these 
latter  points,  and  its  effects  are  transferred  forward 
from  point  to  point,  actually  estahlisJiing  first  in  the 
anterior  cross-line,  and  then  in  each  succeeding 
cross-line  the  latent  reversal  of  their  respective  S  S. 

The  whole  force  is  thus  centred  on  the  head,  and 
when  this,  by  its  actual  or  relative  movement,  re- 
leases the  front  point  of  aj^plication,  the  winding 
line  from  the  rear  point  cutting,  as  it  were,  through 
the  body  of  the  snake,  allows  the  development  of  the 
spring,  and  becomes,  on  the  opposite  aspect  of 
each  C,  the  new  alternating  anterior  winding  line. 


41 


In  this  case,  where  we  have  begun  with  the  left 
anterior  and  right  posterior,  the  latter  becomes  the 
right  anterior  line  leading,  and  the  left  posterior 
will  develop  on  it. 

§  43.  Although  the  general  action  is  the  same, 
and,  on  the  theory  of  each  interior  point  of  appli- 
cation being  in  a  cross-hne,  we  might  consider  each 
C  from  the  front  as  replacing  the  one  in  rear,  and 
each  from  the  rear  as  replacing  the  one  in  front, 
yet  we  shall,  for  reasons  which  will  appear  when 
the  locomotion  of  the  higher  animals  is  taken  up, 
first  consider  the  action  of  each  as  simple  and  un- 
connected with  others. 

In  general  action,  the  head  is  steady,  and  the 
spine  moves  from  or  against  it  at  the  socket ;  but, 
since  the  forces  are  gathered  against  the  head-ball 
as  a  focus — since  the  ultimate  result  is  as  if  the 
head  gave  a  final  covering  tvnat,  and  since  it  seems 
to  facihtate  explanation — we  shall  suppose  the  head 
to  move. 

§  44.  The  spine  or  back-bone  of  the  snake, 
which  represents  the  simple  elastic  rod  of  the  pre- 
ceding discussion,  is  made  up  of  a  large  number  of 
httle  blocks  of  bone  called  vertebrae.  These  are 
jointed  to  each  other  by  means  of  a  convex  surface 
on  the  rear  of  one  vertebra,  fitting  into  a  concave 


42 


surface  in  the  front  of  tlie  next.  Thus  the  utmost 
freedom  of  motion  is  allowed,  and  the  numerous 
powerful  muscles  make  of  the  spine  a  rod  of  al- 
most perfect  elasticity,  and  capable  of  all  the  nec- 
essary adjustments. 

The  rihs,  by  which  the  snake  must  evidently 
take  its  final  appui  for  all  motion,  are  set  by  pairs — 
one  rib  on  either  side  of  every  vertebra,  so  that 
the  courses  of  their  articulations  form  parallel 
lines,  from  head  to  tail,  on  each  side  of  the  spine. 
These  articulations  are  formed  each  by  a  socket  of 
two  slight  concavities  on  the  upper  end  of  the  rib, 
moving  on  a  protuberance  from  the  vertebra  which 
carries  corresponding  convexities."^ 

Thus  set  on,  the  ribs  support  the  spine  like  so 
many  curved  springs  bowing  outward. 

At  their  ground  ends  each  one  of  a  pair  of  ribs 
is  connected  with  its  fellow  by  a  ligamentous  hand^ 
and  these  bands  offer  the  medium  by  which,  in 
transverse  continuation  of  the  lower  ends  of  the 
ribs,  the  animal  takes  hold  of  the  ground. 

§  45.  If  we  call  the  position  of  the  rihs  in  their 
sockets,  as  the  snake  lies  extended,  their  normal 
'position,  and  assume,  for  the  moment,  that  the  rib 

*  This  diflers  from  the  analogous  articulalions  in  the  higher  ani- 
mals, where  the  rib  carries  the  ball,  and  the  sockets  are  between 
two  vertebrae. 


43 


does  not  move  in  its  articulation,  then,  when,  by 
the  formation  of  torsion  curvatures  in  the  spine, 
the  facings  of  the  protuberances  on  the  vertebrae 
are  changed,  viz.,  to  the  front,  by  coming  on  the 
anterior  portion  of  a  convex,  or  the  posterior  por- 
tion of  a  concave,  and  to  the  rear  by  coming  on 
the  posterior  portion  of  a  convex,  or  the  anterior 
of  a  concave — it  is  obvious,  that  the  facings  of  the 
ribs  will  be  changed  correspondingly.  The  con- 
cave inner  surface  of  each  rib  will  be  in  the  snake 
turned  toward  the  rear  when  the  ball  of  its  articu- 
lation is  turned  to  the  front,  and  to  the  front  when 
the  ball  is  turned  to  the  rear. 

We  shall  ahvays  speak  of  a  rib  as  ^^ facing  forward 
or  hackiuard,''  with  reference  to  its  concave  surface. 
Thus  the  ribs  on  the  anterior  half  of  convexities,, 
and  posterior  half  of  concavities,  face  backward, 
the  ribs  on  the  remaining  halves  forward. 

§  46.  If  next,  the  ribs  in  any  facing  be  pressed 
against  the  ground,  so  that  their  ground  ends  are 
firmly  fixed ;  then  an  altered  facing  of  their  articu- 
lations, such  as  would  be  caused  by  the  commence- 
ment of  a  change  to  the  opposite  curvatures  in  the 
spine,  will  introduce  a  twist  into  the  C  shape  of 
each  rib,  thus  changing  it  into  a  twisted  S ;  and 
when  this  twist  is  discharged  at  the  articulation,  in 


u 


the  manner  we  are  about  to  describe,  one  of  tbe 
turns  will  give  force,  forward  or  backward,  to  the 
ensuing  spring,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  spine,  or 
rod,  the  other  turn  will  control  the  direction  of  the 
spring. 

§  47.  We  may  consider  the  cylinder  formed  by 
the  spine,  the  ribs,  and  the  ligamentous  connec- 
tions between  the  rib  ends,  as  a  compound  spine,  in 
which  the  idea  that  the  elastic  rod  of  our  previous 
discussion  should  be  able  to  release  its  twists  of 
one  form,  so  as  to  accept  those  of  the  replacing 
form,  is  carried  out. 

If  this  be  allowed,  we  see  that  the  fundamental 
action  of  every  portion  of  the  machinery  for  loco- 
motion is  the  action  of  the  double  twisty  viz.,  a  turn 
in  one  direction  met  bv  a  turn  in  the  contrary 
direction,  and  under  the  rule  that  one  of  these 
turns  being  Hberated  it  is  guided  as  to  the  direc- 
tion of  its  discharge  by  the  constraining  influence 
of  the  other. 

For  example,  a  rib  faced  with  its  concave  for- 
ward, by  reason  of  the  contour  of  the  spine,  under 
its  articulation,  and,  becoming  twisted  by  a  turn 
in  fche  contrary  direction,  will,  finally,  with  the 
reversing  action  of  the  cross-line  of  its  spinal  S, 
spring  at  the  moment  when  the  shape  of  the  spine 


45 


is  changed.  It  ivill  then  he  the  primary  turn  ivhicli 
discharges  itself  against  the  spinal  articulation,  and 
tliis  gives  the  locomotive  force,  the  other  turn 
merely  guiding  the  direction. 

The  primary  turn  would  be  in  the  reverse  direc- 
tion for  a  different  succession  of  twists,  \dz.,  such 
as  would  have  place  fiom  beginning  with  a  rear 
point  of  application,  but,  if  we  be  not  mistaken, 
the  ribs  of  the  common  snake  are,  normally,  so 
inclined  as  to  bring  the  concave  surface  to  the 
front,  when  they  are  not  in  action,  a  circumstance 
wliich  would  indicate  that  the  final  slip  at  the 
articulations  is  always  forward.  We  expect  to 
show  how  locomotion  backward  may  be  produced 
with  an  anterior  point  of  application  leading,  and 
it  is,  we  suppose,  for  this  reason,  viz. :  retrogres- 
sion being,  in  vertebrate  animals,  derived  from 
progressive  action,  that  motion  backward  is  some- 
what awkward  in  comparison  with  the  motion 
forward. 

There  is  one  species  of  snake,  the  amphishoena, 
which,  it  is  said,  moves  with  equal  facility  in 
either  direction.  Whether  in  these  the  ribs  are 
so  set  on  that  they  may  discharge  by  a  slip  back- 
ward, as  well  as  forward,  and  so,  readily,  inter- 


46 


change  the  leading  points  of  apphcation,  we  are- 
not  able  to  say. 

Of  the  two  articulating  surfaces  on  the  rib  pro- 
tuberance (§  44),  which  constitute  the  ball  portion 
of  the  rib  and  spine-joint  in  the  snake,  we  should 
imagine  that  the  rearmost  one  receives  the  press- 
ure when  the  concavity  of  the  rib  faces  forward, 
the  anterior  one  when  it  faces  backward. 

§  48.  Returning  to  the  action  of  the  head-ball, 
and  of  its  socket  (which  latter  is  carried  by  the 
first  vertebra  of  the  spine),  we  will  endeavor  to 
carry  out  the  principles  stated,  to  a  connection 
with  the  ribs,  &g.,  when  concentrating  the  spring 
for  an  act  of  progressive  locomotion. 

(a)  (§§  39,  37).  The  head-ball  rotates  from  the 
left,  by  the  rear,  and  toward  the  right,  making 
pressure  in  the  left  hemisphere  of  its  socket,  un- 
der which  a  concave  forms  and  its  continued  ac- 
tion forms  [against  the  passive  resistance  of  the 
right  rear  point  of  application,  i.  e.,  one  of  the 
rear  rib  articulations  on  the  right  side],  the  "left 
anterior  winding  line"  (§  25)  in  its  secondary  sec- 
tion, i.  e.,  in  the  posterior  C  of  the  S. 

{a')  The  continued  rotation  of  the  head-ball,, 
against  the  passive  resistance  of  the  right  rear 
j)oint  of  application,  after  it  has  formed  its  second- 


47 


ary  section  brings  around  the  upper  end  of  its 
cross-line,  to  the  left  and  front,  forming  fully  the 
primary  section  of  the  left  anterior  winding  line. 
The  head-ball  passing  further  around  comes  to  a 
check,  so  as  to  press  against  a  point  toward  the 
front  of  the  socket,  and  somewhat  to  the  left  of  its 
front  centre. 

(b')  (Which,  in  a  part  of  its  development  pre- 
cedes h,  §  37).  The  now  commencing  active  work- 
ing of  the  right  rear  point  of  application  does 
not  at  first  form  the  secondary  section  of  its 
winding  line,  which  would  form  in  the  anterior 
C  of  the  S,  that  being  prevented  by  the  full 
formation  of  the  anteiior  hne  which  has  dis- 
placed the  upper  end  of  the  cross-hne,  and  thus 
checks  the  movement  of  the  lower  end,  so, 
indeed,  that  this  end  cannot  fully  draw  until 
the  discharge  of  the  anterior  line  allows  it  to 
come  again  into  traction.  The  action,  then  first, 
forms  part  of  the  primary  section  of  the  rear  line, 
and  introduces  the  change  of  curve,  from  the  cross- 
line  end,  first  IT? to  the  rear  Cgivinj  the  counter-turn  to 
the  ribs  along  its  convex.  Its  effect  in  the  head-joint 
is  to  move  the  socket  forward,  but  at  the  same  time 
with  a  turn  to  the  right,  which  brings  the  left  an- 


48 


terior  line  point  of  pressure  back  to  the  centre  from 
its  inclination  to  the  left  mentioned  under  (a). 

(b)  The  continuation  of  the  active  working  of 
the  right  rear  point  of  appHcation  next,  causes  its 
secondary  section,  which  is  the  nascent  reverse 
cui've  to  begin  in  the  anterior  C,  spreading  from 
the  upper  end  of  the  cross-line,  as  its  formation 
forces  this  end  backward  from  the  forward  position 
into  which  it  has  been  drawn  by  the  formation  of 
the  primary  section  of  the  anterior  line.  This 
nascent  curve  gives  the  second  turn  to  the  ribs 
along  the  convex  of  this  C,  as  the  partial  develop- 
ment of  h',  which  is  the  nascent  reverse  ciu've  for 
the  posterior  C,  did  to  the  ribs  on  its  convex. 

Finally  the  commencement  of  the  alternate  (here 
the  right  anterior  luinding  line  by  the  raovement  of 
the  right  anterior  point  of  ai^plication,  beginning  with 
the  development  of  its  secondary  section  (a)  tvill  first 
discharge  the  rear  C,  and  so  on  ;  the  old  right  rear 
winding  line  becoming  the  new  anterior  winding 
line,  by  cutting  through  the  articulations.  But  a 
closer  examination  of  the  action  of  the  ribs,  <fec., 
will  show  more  clearly  how  each  point  discharges 
its  spring. 

It  is  evident  that,  if  the  head  were  gi'aduaUy 
shifted  to  the  right  so  as  to  bring  the  posterior 


49 


point  of  application  to  tlie  same  relative  position 
it  would  take  by  active  movement,  all  these  effects 
could  be  brought  about  by  the  movement  of  the 
left  head  condyle,  against  the  passive  resistance  of 
the  rear  point,  continued  throughout. 

§  49.  As  has  been  already  mentioned,  the  num- 
ber of  S  S  formed  in  the  elastic  rod,  as  well  as 
their  relative  proportions,  would  be  dependent  on 
conditions  involved  in  its  structure ;  so  in  the 
snake's  body,  where  these  conditions  must  depend 
very  much  on  the  will  of  the  animal,  the  number 
of  S  S  and  their  proportions  may  probably  be 
regulated  at  its  pleasure.  In  man  and  quadrupeds, 
however,  they  are  fixed,  in  both  respects  by  the 
form  of  the  mechanism. 

§  50.  There  is  one  other  set  of  actions  which 
might  be  here  discussed,  viz.,  those  arising  from 
both  pairs  of  diagonal  forces  acting  simultaneously, 
but,  as  it  seems  to  us  doubtful  whether  the  snake, 
having  no  unyielding  breast-bone,  be  capable  of 
using  them,  and  since  they  may  be  as  well  and 
more  conveniently  taken  up,  when  speaking  of  the 
higher  animals,  vv^e  defer  them  for  the  present,  ex- 
cepting, so  far  as  they  are  spoken  of  in  §  71  and 
onward. 

§  51.  In    the  different  facings  of  the  protuber- 


50 


ances  of  the  spine,  with  which  the  ribs  articulate, 
the  ribs  will  be  thrown  more  or  less  upon  the  outer 
or  the  inner  edge  of  their  ground  ends,  and,  being 
bent  against  the  ground  on  one  edge,  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  counter-turn,  though  this  be  only  poten- 
tial and  latent  as  regards  the  spine,  will  yet  bring 
the  bearing  of  the  ribs  on  the  contrary  edge,  to 
that  on  which  they  at  first  rested. 

We  believe  that  two  bevels — an  inner  and  an 
outer — are  found  on  the  ground  ends  of  the  snake's 
ribs ;  but,  however  this  may  be,  the  change  from 
outer  to  inner  side  (or  vice  versa)  of  the  feet  which 
furnish  the  appuis  on  the  ground  in  the  higher  animals 
is  a  marlzed feature  of  their  locomotion,  and  we  may 
observe  a  no  less  marked  distinction  in  the  succes- 
sive application  of  the  two  sides  of  the  palm  of  the 
hand  in  man,  when  this  member  is  perfectly  used. 

We  shall  often  employ  the  terms  innner  and  outer 
hearings  (or  levels  when  speaking  of  the  edges  of 
the  ground  ends  of  the  snake's  ribs,  and  also  of  the 
two  sides  of  the  feet  in  quadrupeds,  and  of  the 
feet  and  hands  in  man. 

§  52.  It  will  be  noticed  that,  in  the  snake,  the 
helices  of  the  spine  appear  from  the  extreme 
pliableness  of  the  ribs,  to  be  more  or  less  flattened, 
so  that  the  body  seems  to  move  chiefly  by  curva- 


51 


tures  in  the  horizontal  plane.  The  spine,  however, 
retains  its  helical  curvature,  and  there  is  real  action 
in  the  perpendicular  plane. 

§  53.  We  will  then  suppose  that  the  ground 
end  of  each  rib  is  terminated  by  hoo  heveJs,  so  cut 
that  on  one  of  them — the  outer — the  rib  shall  rest 
when  faced  to  the  front  (§  45)  and  before  receiving 
any  secondary  turn  ;  on  the  other  of  them — the  inner 
— ichen  faced  to  the  rear  and  under  the  same  con- 
dition. Then  the  ribs  which  are  in  appui  according 
to  §  48  (a)  will,  before  they  have  received  a  second 
turn,  rest  as  follows  :  those  on  the  anterior  part  of 
a  convex  (being  faced  to  the  rear)  on  their  inner  bevels 
— those  on  the  posterior  part  of  a  convex  (being  faced 
to  the  front),  on  their  outer  bevels.  Should  the  ribs  of 
concaves  be  put  in  appui  the  order  would  be 
reversed. 

§  54.  The  forces  act,  primarily,  along  the  con- 
vexes,  and  the  appuis  are  normally  on  the  ribs 
articulated  along  the  two  convexes  of  each  S. 
Should  the  ribs  of  a  concave  take  the  place  of  those 
of  a  convex  as  appuis,  the  forces  would  act  on  them 
only  secondarily,  i.  e.,  as  a  sequence  of  the  action 
along  the  convexes. 

Supposing  the  left  anterior  point  of  application 
in  action  :     As  the  winding  liue  is  formed  and  the 


52 


anterior  end  of  tlie  cross-libe  is  drawn  around  ta 
the  right,  the  ribs  on  the  right  of  the  first  C  and 
on  the  left  of  the  second  (here  being  the  two  con- 
vexes  of  the  S),  will  be  in  appui,  and  those  on  the 
concaves  will  be  raised.  The  ribs  along  the  pos- 
terior parts  of  the  convexes  being  already  on  their 
outer  bevels,  the  further  traction  from  the  left 
anterior  point  of  application,  when  it  begins  to 
move  the  front  cross-line  end  will  increase  this 
bearing  on  the  outer  bevels. 

§  55.  The  effect  of  continued  hehcal  traction  of 
the  left  anterior  winding  line  throughout  the  con- 
vexes,  that  is  to  say,  in  both  the  posterior  and 
anterior  convex,  is  finally  to  turn  all  the  ribs  artic- 
ulated along  them  outward.  Even  those  in  the 
front  portions  (faced  to  the  rear)  will  be  thus 
affected,  so  soon  as,  with  the  straightening  of  the 
line,  the  upper  cross-hne  end  permanently  moves, 
and  they  come  under  its  direct  influence. 

The  posterior  part  of  the  secondary  section  of 
the  line  (§  23)  is  first  affected ;  then  the  upper 
end  of  the  cross-hne,  being  somewhat  moved, 
affects  the  posterior  part  of  the  primary  section, 
and  so  on  until  the  secondary  section,  having 
reached  its  hmit,  the  upper  Cross-line  end  is  more 
absolutely  subject  to  the  traction. 


53 


The  effect  of  the  posterior  winding  hne  on  the 
same  articulations,  along  the  convexes,  is  to  turn 
them  inward. 

The  reciprocal  cross-cutting  of  these  lines  in  the 
convexity  articulations  is  the  means  of  their  discharge 
with  the  spring  ivhich  they  Imve  gathered,  so  soon 
as  it  is  Hberated. 

§  56.  The  double  t^sdsting  of  the  convexity  ribs 
may  receive  and  retain  the  elements  of  the  dis- 
charge, as  produced  in  them  by  the  diagonal  wind- 
ing lines,  before  the  cui'vatures  of  the  spine  are  at 
all  affected. 

As  was  mentioned  in  §  32,  the  displacement  of 
the  cross-line  by  the  anterior  winding  line — in  this 
case  to  the  left — brings  on  a  reaction  to  the  poste- 
rior line  from  the  head,  and  the  rear  cross-line 
end  will  not  draw  until  a  final  exertion  of  the  rear 
"point  of  application,"  or  a  redoubled  working  of 
the  anterior  point  (§  38j  restores  it  to  its  place. 

§  57.  We  should  suppose  the  discharge  to  take 
place  as  follows : 

The  left  anterior  winding  line,  having  estab- 
lished the  light  anterior,  and  left  posterior,  con- 
vexes.  The  posterior  line  works — with  reaction 
at  the  head — from  the  rear  of  each  convex  ;  and 
the  first  effect  of  this  working  is  to  double-twist 
3* 


54 


the  ribs  on  the  rear  posterior  halves  of  the  con- 
vexes,  and  change  their  outer  to  an  inner  bearing 

(§  51). 

This  being  done,  the  final  movement  draws  the 
posterior  end  of  the  cross-line  and  anterior  termi- 
nation of  the  right  posterior  winding  line  [which 
results  in  the  outward  turn  to  the  rear  of  the  right 
hemisphere  of  the  head  socket  (§  h,  §  39,  etc.),]  so 
into  place,  that  the  winding  lines  cut  each  other 
through  the  anterior  halves  of  the  convexes,  also 
changing  the  inner  bearing  of  their  ribs  to  an 
outer  one.  The  discharge  is  thus  virtually  com- 
pleted, and  the  body  in  position  for  the  alternate 
gathering,  if  the  alternate  anterior  point  of  appli- 
cation come  at  once  into  play. 

§  58.  The  posterior  halves  of  the  convexes, 
being  virtually  discharged  by  the  complete  draw- 
ing— although  not  the  cutting — of  the  lines,  are 
thus  actually  discharged ;  the  'posterior,  when  the 
posterior  cross-line  end  receives  the  full  traction 
of  the  posterior  winding  line ;  the  anterior,  when 
the  alternate  anterior  point  of  application  begins 
its  working.  Or,  perhaps,  rather  the  whole  dis- 
charge is  only  virtual,  until  this  last  action  occurs, 
when    the    actual  discharge   and   spring   rai3idly 


55 


take  place,  beginniiig  with  the  rearmost  appui, 
in  the  succession  mentioned. 

It  ^\all  be  remarked  that  the  coui-se  of  the  cutting 
line  coming  from  the  opposite  side,  for  the  ribs  on 
the  posterior  halves,  the  line  first  takes  effect  in  the 
trunk,  and  thence  ascends  to  the  articulations,  where- 
as, coming  for  the  anterior  halves  fi'om  their  own 
sides,  it  descends  at  the  posterior  cross-line,  and  at 
the  head-ending  of  the  posterior  "  winding  line,'"  from 
the  articulations,  into  the  trunk. 

In  these  movements  the  secondary  section  work- 
ing of  the  anteiior  ^nnding  line,  in  the  posterior  C, 
represents  the  turning  (a)  of  the  head  condyle.  Its 
primary  section  working,  including  the  action  of 
the  anterior  cross-line  end, represents  (a  ' )  the  pas- 
sage of  the  condyle  pressure  across  the  head-joint 
to  its  front.  The  secondary  section  working  of 
the  posterior  winding  hne  in  the  anterior  C,  repre- 
sents the  turning  (h)  of  the  socket  by  its  outer 
edge.  Its  primary  section  working  in  the  posterior 
O,  which  partially  anticipates  the  secondary,  be- 
cause the  posterior  cross-line  end  is  checked  in  its 
movement,  represents  (b ' )  the  passage  of  the  socket 
action  across  the  head-joint  to  the  front. 

On  the  sides,  also,  the  crossing  of  these  lines 
could  be  projected  as  ball  and  socket  surfaces,  the 


56 


anterior  line,  then,  tracing  the  sockets,  as  it  pro- 
duces the  concaves  of  the  alternate  curve,  and  the 
posterior  line  the  balls,  as  it  produces  the  alternate 
convexes. 

The  figure  of  8  shape,  as  developed  in  the  hall  and 
socket  movement,  one  half  by  the  ball  and  one  half 
by  the  socket,  or,  by  the  cutting  of  two  contrary 
hehces,  seems  to  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  locomotion^ 
and  perhaps  of  all  kinds  of  motion,  including  that 
of  the  final  atoms,  pressure  and  rotation  being  its 
elements.  This  connection  of  an  8  shape  with  lo- 
comotion has,  we  believe,  been  noticed  by  several 
authors. 

§  59.  It  will  be  noticed,  further,  that  (§  27j  the 
posterior  part  of  each  G,  as  formed  by  the  leading 
point  of  application  (here  the  left  anterior),  is  the 
longest,  being  furthest  from  the  originating  point, 
and  consequently  carries  the  greater  number  of 
ribs.  The  anterior  ribs  of  each  convex,  then,  dis- 
charge their  inward  turn  causing  a  spring  back- 
ward (§  47),  against  the  action  of  the  numerically 
preponderating  ribs  of  the  posterior  parts,  which 
discharge  their  outward  turn,  causing  a  spring  for- 
ward. The  anterior  ribs  of  each  convex  will  then 
take  the  role  of  lifting  the  section  while  the  posterior 
ribs  drive  it  fortvard. 


57 


§  60.  So  soon  as  the  continued  advancement  of  the 
'potential  change  of  curvature  extends  its  effects  actual- 
ly to  the  spine,  a  discharge  is  prepared  in  which  the 
posterior  C  is  so  far  discharged  and  hfted  as  to  crowd 
forward  the  effect  of  propulsion  on  to  the  anterior 
C,  and  their  united  discharge  thrusts  the  body 
forward  by  a  movement  in  which  the  rear  ribs  of 
an  S  really  precede  the  front  ones  in  leaving  the 
ground.^ 

The  changing  of  the  curvature  of  the  convexes 
from  one  side  to  the  other  has,  owing  to  the  con- 
vex being  the  part  which  primarily  foUows  the 
lines  of  traction,  this  characteristic,  that  iJie  convex 
passes  over,  the  concave  under,  in  making  the 
change. 

§  61.  The  ribs  on  the  concaves  do  not  change  their 
facing  until  the  actual  change  in  the  shape  of  the  spine 
brings  this  about  by  changing  the  direction  of  their 
articulating  heads. 

§  62.  The  above  stated  conditions,  when  each 
section  of  ribs  has  been  twisted  by  the  turns  last 
introduced  into  a  position  for  discharging  the  pri- 
mary ones,  at  once  divide  the  ribs  on  any  convex, 
or  concave  (should  such  be  in  appui),  into  two  sets, 

*  The  same  crowdiug  forward  of  the  action  would  occur  were  there 
a  number  of  S  S. 


58 


tIz.,  those  about  to  discharge  in  the  direction  for 
progression,  in  the  one  case,  or  retrogression  in  the 
other,  which  we  shall  term  Propelleks,  and  those 
iibout  to  discharge  in  the  opposing  direction,  which 
we  shall  term  Bearers,  since  they  raise  the  body 
sufficiently  to  clear  the  ground. 

If  the  torsions  by  both  anterior  and  posterior 
points  of  apphcation  work  together  so  that  neither 
end  of  the  cross-line  shall  (as  in  §  32)  displace  the 
other,  the  spring  will  take  place  against  the  cross- 
line  as  a  centre  of  appui,  and  the  result  will  be  a 
perpendicular  locomotion,  in  which  case  there  will  be 
an  equal  division  between  the  bearers  and  propel- 
lers in  each  C. 

§  63.  If  the  rear  point  of  application  were  made 
the  leading  point,  the  reverse  of  the  preceding  ac- 
tion would  take  place,  and  in  a  snake  whose  struc- 
ture allowed  this  mode  of  action,  retrogression 
would  follow.  In  such  a  case  the  ribs  discharging 
to  the  fi'ont  would  be  "  hearers,''  but  as  this  mode 
of  action  will  not  be  considered  normal  we  confine 
that  term  to  ike  anterior  ribs  in  each  G. 

§  64.  As  to  the  order  in  which  the  alternating 
ribs  come  to  the  ground,  this  will  depend  upon  the 
degree  of  gathering  attained  while  "  en  air."  The 
propellers  of  the  rear  0,  as  it  were,  running  over 


59 


theii"  bearers  and  receiving  the  proper  lift  from 
tliem,  quitted  the  ground  first ;  then  these  bearers ; 
next,  the  ribs  of  the  front  C,  in  the  same  order. 
Now,  as,  in  this  way,  the  rear  C  alters  its  curva- 
ture before  the  front  C,  and  this  alteration  com- 
mences at  its  rear,  the  alternate  propellers  of  the 
rear  C  will,  the  first,  be  read}^  to  take  the  ground, 
then  its  bearers ;  and  in  the  same  order  for  the 
fi'ont  C  —  that  is,  the  new  appuis  will  ground  in 
the  same  order  that  the  old  ones  lifted.  To  ac- 
complish this,  we  suppose  the  gathering  "en  air" 
must  have  proceeded  as  far  as  the  drawing  of  the 
right  (alternate)  point  of  aj^plication  upon  the  an- 
terior end  of  the  alternate  cross-line,  and  the  pass- 
age of  the  head-ball  pressure  to  the  front.  (§  48.) 
But,  there  are  two  conditions  which  may  cause 
the  anterior  C  to  reach  the  ground  in  advance  of 
the  rear  C.  1st.  If  the  bearers  of  that  C  have  not 
sufficiently  raised  it,  in  which  case,  even  if  the 
propellers  of  the  front  C  should  land  before  the 
bearers,  the  anterior  Hne-gathering  w^ould  be  made 
on  the  ground,  and  in  a  somewhat  awkward  man- 
ner ;  2d.  If  the  spring  approach  the  nature  of  a 
jump,  and  the  gathering  "en  aii'"  proceed  as  far 
as  the  commencement  of  the  active  workmg  from 


60 


the  alternate  posterior  (here  left)  point  of  applica- 
tion, theil  the  bearers  of  the  front  C  in  the  new 
curve  —  the  head  end  of  each  S  being  the  most 
weighted  and  the  sustaining  force  having  ex- 
hausted itself  —  would  be  the  first  to  reach  the 
ground. 

§  65.  It  may  here  be  remarked  that,  to  ensure 
smooth  action  and  to  maintain  the  head  in  un- 
swerving steadiness,  it  would  seem  requisite  that 
two  or  three  vertebrae  immediately  behind  the 
head  should  be  free  from  the  ground,  and  thus  act 
as  a  neck,  or  adjusting  connection  between  the  head 
and  the  median  point  between  the  two  first  ribs 
which,  as  their  articulations,  alternately  come  to 
the  centre  line,  must  otherwise  give  it  a  certain, 
lateral  motion. 

§  QQ.  The  Scutce,  or  ligamentous  connections 
between  the  ground  ends  of  each  pair  of  ribs 
(before  alluded  to)  being  flexible,  accommodate 
themselves  to  the  position  of  the  bevels.  They 
act,  we  should  suppose,  as  follows :  When  the 
propellers  come  to  the  ground,  on  their  outer 
bevels,  the  posterior  edges  of  their  sides  of  the 
scutse  press  against  it,  when  they  take  appui  on 
their  inner  bevels  this  edge  is  pressed  downward 


61 


against  the  ground  to  secure  a  firm  resistance  in? 
appui  of  the  gathering.* 

The  twisting  of  the  scutae  also  may  have  some- 
influence  in  adjusting  the  bevels  of  the  ribs  "  en 
air." 

§  67.  We  will  now  give  a  short  resume  of  the 
foregoing  theory  of  the  progressive  locomotion  of 
the  snake. 

There  are  for  each  diagonal  spring  two  virtual 
actions  at  the  head-joint. 

First.  That  produced  by  the  moving  pressure  of 
the  head-hall  and  consisting  (a)  of  the  passage  of 
the  pressui'e  around'  the  edge  of  the  socket  on  the 
side  of  the  active  anterior  "  point  of  application.'* 
(In  our  example  the  left),  {a '.)  Of  its  passage- 
from  the  rear,  across  the  middle  of  the  socket,  and 
(unless  the  opposing  action  have  begun)  to  its  own 
side  of  the  front  centre. 

Second.  That  produced  by  the  moving  and  re- 
traction (as  to  the  moving  t  side),  of  the  socJ^et,  un-^ 
der  the  side  of  the  head-ball,  opposite  to  that  just 

*That  is,  only  the  posterior  edge  acts  (speaking  of  the  propellers). 
The  backward  bearing  of  the  spring  in  perfect  motion  is  included  en- 
tirely within  the  rib  or  limb  of  appui,  that  element  of  the  force  not  com- 
ing to  the  ground— were  it  not  for  this  no  locomotion  could  be  obtained 
on  ice  where  the  weight  pressing  forward  secures  the  gathering,  buti 
would  not  secure  the  spring. 

1 1.  e.,  side  which  leads  the  movement. 


62 


mentioned,  and  consisting  (5 ' )  of  the  bringing  back 
of  the  point  of  pressure  to  the  front  centre,  and 
that  moving  forward  of  the  socket  which  prepares 
the  liberation  of  the  strain  forward  (b).  The  fur- 
ther movement  of  the  socket  by  rotation  outward 
in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  head-ball. 
This  is  more  particularly  accompanied  by  retrac- 
tion of  the  moving  side  of  the  socket,  and  by  rais- 
ing the  other  side  it  redoubles  the  pressure  of  the 
head-ball. 

We  have  called  these  actions  "virtual,"  because 
they  may,  during  a  considerable  part  of  their 
movement,  only  represent  thfe  tractions  of  the 
twisted  lines  of  the  spine. 

§  68.  The  actions  in  the  tody  of  the  snake  which 
accompany  these  actions  of  the  head  joint,  are 

Corresponding  with  (a),  those  of  the  secondary 
sections  of  the  anterior  winding  line  (§  25),  causing 
the  prehminary  part  of  the  formation  of  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  S  S  curves,  of  which 
the  posterior  C  C  are  longer  than  the  anterior,  and 
also  the  posterior  part  of  each  C  longer  than  its 
anterior  part.  In  this  way  the  posterior  curvature 
of  each  C  carries  more  ribs  than  the  anterior,  and 
thus,  in  each  C  the  "propellers"  preponderate  over 


63 


the  "bearers."  The  "propellers"  rest  on  their 
outer,  the  "  bearers"  on  their  inner  bevels. 

Corresponding  with  fa'),  the  drawing  on  the 
anterior  ends  of  the  cross  lines,  which  takes  effect 
chiefly  in  the  jirimary  section  of  the  anterior  winding 
line  (§  25).  This  produces  an  increased  bearing  of 
the  propellers  on  their  outer  bevels  and,  to  some 
extent  a  turning  outward  of  the  bearers. 

(Jorrespondiyig  with  ih'),  the  check  which  would 
be  given  to  the  rear  points  of  the  cross-lines,  in 
following  the  anterior  points  is,  by  the  strong  work- 
ing in  the  primary  section  of  the  posterior  winding 
line — the  rear  points  being  prevented  fi'om  moving 
(§  32) — received  at  the  head.  It  brings  the  pro- 
pellers on  to  their  inner  bevels,  double  twisting 
them — first  those  of  the  rear  C  C,  by  action  pro- 
perly belonging  to  h,  then  those  of  the  anterior  C  C, 
by  action  of  the  secondary  section ;  and  this 
through  the  S  S  in  succession,  from  rear  to  front. 
So  far  as  it  influences  the  bearers  it  turns  them 
outward. 

Corresponding  ivith  (h),  the  full  formation  of  the 
primary  section  of  the  posterior  winding  line,  as  the 
rear  ends  of  the  cross-lines  come  into  place  ;  the 
turning   outward   of   the    bearers    and    complete 


64 


bringing  to  the  discharge  point  of  the  propellers  by 
turning  them  inward. 

Finally,  corresponding  with  action  (a)  of  the 
alternating  side  of  the  head-ball,  the  liberation  of 
these  gatherings  and  the  instantaneous  formation 
of  the  corresponding  movements  under  (a). 

Remarhs. — The  discharge  actually  alters  the  shape 
of  the  spine,  giving  the  final  adjustment  to  the 
articulations  of  the  concaves  for  taking  the  ground. 

If  the  motion  be  of  a  rapid,  powerful  character, 
the  hinder  S  S  will  not  only  be  first  brought  to  the 
point  of  discharge,  but  will  first  leave  the  ground, 
and  be  the  first  to  come  down ;  the  whole  body, 
however  close  to  the  groimd,  being  in  air  at  the 
same  moment ;  but  if  the  movement  be  more 
sluggish,  the  front  S  S  must  the  first  leave  and  the 
first  come  to  the  ground. 

The  point  that  (a)  {aMot  even  a ' )  form  en  air, 
when  the  locomotion  is  once  begun,  is  a  most  import- 
ant one. 

It  will  often  be  most  convenient  to  describe  the 
whole  course  of  an  action  by  referring  it  to  the 
head-joint  movements,  without  going  through  the 
details  of  the  spinal  workings. 

§  69.  From  the  position  of  readiness  to  dis- 
charge, where   (b)  is   carried   out,   three   different 


65 


results  may  follow,  according  to  the  further  move- 
ments which  may  be  given  to  the  head-ball  and 
socket-joint. 

First  result — progression,  as  above  described. 

§  70.  Second  result — retrogression,  if,  instead  of 
at  once  beginning  the  alternate  movement  of  the 
light  anterior  point  of  application,  the  discharge 
be  refused.  Then  any  further  movement  of  the 
left  side  of  the  head-ball  being  prevented,  and  the 
attempted  rotation  of  the  right  side  of  the  socket 
outward  being  continued,  this  latter  movement  will 
be  reduplicated  in  its  effects  on  the  left  side  of 
the  socket,  and,  being  inoperative  in  reducing  the 
position  of  the  ball  on  the  same  side,  will,  by 
resiliency,  take  effect  in  raising  the  opposite  (right) 
side  of  the  socket  and  carrying  it  forward.  In  the 
same  way,  the  ball  motion  of  the  left  side  being 
reduplicated,  the  ball  vrill  be  pressed  down  and 
carried  backward  on  the  right  side.  We  shall 
thus  have  the  head-joint  in  full  position  of  the 
alternate  gathering,  while  the  ribs,  <fcc.,  still  retain 
the  old  one. 

The  effect  of  these  actions  on  the  points  of 
gravity  will  be  to  throw,  by  the  first,  the  appui, 
off  the  convexes,  upon  the  concaves  of  the  first 


66 


C  C  ;  and,  by  the  second,  upon  the  concaves  of  the 
rear  convexes,  in  each  S. 

As  now  the  moyement  of  the  socket  discharges 
the  first,  tJie  front  C  C  will  be  discharged  the  first, 
then  the  rear  C  C,  in  each  S  separately ;  and,  the 
appiiis  now  being  on  ribs  faced  in  the  exactly 
opposite  directions  to  those  on  the  convexes,  the 
movement  will  be  backward  instead  of  forward. 

The  ribs  of  the  concaves,  as  thus  used  in  retro- 
gression, will  leave  and  take  the  ground  from  the 
opposite  bevels  to  those  from  which  they  would 
have  left  and  taken  it  had  they  been  on  a  convex 
in  progression. 

The  convexes,  being  still  the  parts  primarily 
affected  by  the  tractions  (§  54),  and  the  appuis, 
now  only  changing  their  bearings  with  the  actual 
change  of  the  spinal  curves  (§  61),  the  springs  of 
the  two  C  C  in  each  S  will  be  more  synchronous  in 
retrogression  than  in  progression. 

§  71.  Third  result.  The  effect  of  an  attempted 
repetition  of  any  one  of  the  four  movements  of  the 
ball  and  socket  on  the  same  track,  that  is  not 
allowing  any  transformation  of  one  movement  into 
another,  wiU  be  to  pass  a  part  of  the  gathering  to 
the  opposite  side,  or,  rather,  perhaps,  to  give  back 
part  of  the  gathering  belonging  to  that  point  of 


67 


appKcation  which  may  be  supposed  to  have  just 
discharged. 

By  thus  forcing  in  succession  all  the  movements^ 
after  a  full  diagonal  gathering,  we  obtain  —  as  we 
would  by  the  synchronous  action  of  both  sets  of 
diagonal  forces — that  superimposition  of  torsions  to 
which  reference  was  made  in  §  43,  and  in  regard 
to  which  doubts  were  there  expressed  as  to  the 
capability  of  the  snake  to  use  this  double  gather- 
ing in  continuous  locomotion. 

By  "  superimposition  of  tivists"  we  would  desig- 
nate the  result  of  both  the  pairs  of  diagonal  forces 
being  in  action  simultaneously.  The  lateral  shapes- 
of  both  curves  will  then  be  suppressed,  although 
the  corresponding  forces  will  stiU  lie  latent  in  the 
spine.  On  the  other  hand,  the  shapes  in  the  per- 
pendicular plane  mil  remain,  since  they  do  not  act 
against  each  other. 

When  these  curvatures  in  the  perpendicular  plane 
are  fully  gathered,  the  junction  of  the  two  C  C  of  each 
S,  where  the  convexes  formed  by  the  two  diagonal 
sets  of  forces  cut  each  other,  will  be  depressed,  as 
will  likewise  the  anterior  and  posterior  seats  of  the 
"  points  of  application,"  where  the  courses  of  these 
points  cut  each  other.  Between  these  the  inter- 
mediate portion  of  each  C  C  will  rise  and  there 


68 


will  be  formed  for  each  S  two  arches  in  the  perpen- 
dicular plane,  one  for  each  C.  The  upper  lines  of 
the  arch  repesents  the  opposed  convexities  which  have 
met  in  their  passage  over  (§  60).  The  loiver  lines  the 
corresponding  concaves. 

§  72.  We  will  now  follow  out  the  details  of 
forcing,  or  attempting  to  repeat,  the  various  move- 
ments of  the  head-ball  and  socket — assuming  the 
usual  order  of  the  actions,  and  that  the  gathering 
from  the  diagonal  left  anterior  and  right  posterior 
winding  lines  has  been  carried  to  the  j^oiut  of  dis- 
charge, which  implies  that  it  can  be  carried  no 
further.     We  shall  also  speak  of  only  a  single  S. 

As  regards  the  ball  and  the  socket  themselves, 
the  attempt  at  forcing  the  left  anterior  point  of  ap- 
plication to  repeat  its  course  along  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  left  side  of  the  socket  will  cause  the 
pressure  of  the  ball  to  slij)  over  to  the  right  side 
of  the  socket,  by  the  rear — and  when  the  rigid  pos- 
terior winding  line  is  subsequently  forced,  an  at- 
tempt at  a  repetition  of  the  effects  of  that  line  at 
its  head-end  will  take  place  in  the  movement  of 
the  right  side  of  the  socket,  producing  an  analgous 
result,  viz.  :  the  withdraAval  of  the  socket  on  the  left 
side  by  the  rear,  the  countei-part  of  its  previous  ac- 
tion on  the  right  side.      Thus  a  cross-strain  from 


69 


the  cross-tractions  of  the  body  will  be  preserved, 
but  the  lateral  developments  will  be  suppressed, 
their  effects  being  carried  toward  the  front  (or  in 
the  snake,  lower  part)  of  the  joint. 

Similar  effects  of  passing  over  a  portion  of  the 
gathering  to  the  alternate  points  would  result/^'om 
the  attempt  to  force  the  socket  motions  brought  on  by 
the  working  of  the  diagonal  right  posterior  point 
of  application.  And  also  even  beginning  with  the 
points  which  correspond  to  the  final  movement  of 
the  primary  sections  of  the  winding  lines,  although 
these  last  would  require  a  subsequent  adjustment 
with  the  secondary  sections,  from  having  been  car- 
ried out  in  advance  of  the  regular  course  of  move- 
ment. 

It  is  the  rotary  movements  (a)  and  (b),  §  37,  i.  e., 
those  ivhich  accompany  the  formation  of  the  secondary 
sections  of  the  winding  lines,  that  produce  the  arches. 
The  movements  across  the  joint  from  rear  tofront, 
(a ')  {b ' ),  i.  e.,  those  ivhich  accompany  the  primary 
sections  in  their  special  movement,  that  depress  the 
planes  of  the  cross-lines  and  points  of  application. 

§  73.  Let  us  now  look  at  the  accompanying 
formations  along  the  lines  of  traction.  In  doing 
this,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  Hues  of  trac- 
tion are  not  permanent  lines,  but  exist  by  certain 
4 


70 


points  of  the  skeleton  being  in  such  positions  that 
the  muscular  actions  play  on  them  in  certain  ways. 
Thus,  if  the  point  where  the  anterior  end  of  the 
cross-line  for  the  right  anterior  winding  Une  should 
be  brought  to  a  certain  position  in  relation  to  the 
right  anterior  point  of  application,  the  preliminary 
form  of  the  primary  section  of  that  Hne  will  be 
formed,  and  so  on. 

The  first  effect  of  forcing  the  left  anterior  point  of 
apphcation  will  be  the  passing  over  of  a  portion 
of  the  gathering  from  the  secondary  section  of 
the  left  anterior  winding  Hne  to  what  will  be  the 
course  of  the  right  anterior  hne.  This  transfer 
will  begin,  Jirst,  by  the  formation  of  a  certain 
amount  of  convexity  to  the  right,  at  the  posterior 
end  of  the  rear  C,  i.  e.,  allowing  of  the  passage 
without  a  spriyig  of  a  certain  amount  of  the  left 
side  gathering. 

Second.  The  forcing  of  the  movement  (a ' )  will,  at 
the  same  time,  bring  back  the  anterior  cross-line 
end  of  the  left  anterior  winding  line  to  the  centre 
and  advanced  to  the  front,  and  also  cause  the  ad- 
justment of  the  point,  on  the  left  side  of  the  spine, 
which  should  serve  as  anterior  cross-hne  end  for 
the  right  anterior  point  of  apphcation,  so  that  it 
shall  come  into  a  similar  position. 


71 


Third.  The  forcing  of  the  movement  [h').  Here 
it  will  be  remembered  that  the  cross-line  end  being 
held  in  check  (§  32),  the  reaction  to  the  right  pos- 
terior point  of  application  was  at  the  head.  The 
movement  forward,  across  the  joint  of  the  socket 
will,  therefore,  first  be  equalized  for  both  sides, 
and,  then,  the  primary  section  drawing,  the  pos- 
terior end  of  the  cross-line  will  be  brought  into 
place  to  the  front,  and  the  point  which  should 
serve  as  posterior  cross-hne  end  in  the  left  pos- 
terior winding  line  be  likewise  similarly  adjusted. 
The  requisite  displacement  for  both  now  occurs  to  the 
front. 

Fourth.  The  forcing  of  (b),  i.  e.,  of  the  outivard 
rotation  of  the  right  side  of  the  socket,  compl-etes  the 
adjustment  of  the  cross-line  ends,  forms  the  left 
convex  of  the  anterior  C  equal  with  that  of  the 
right  side,  and  finally  equalizes  the  reciprocal  press- 
ure of  head-ball  on  both  sides  of  the  head-joint. 

Remarks. — Referring  to  what  was  said  in  regard 
to  the  lines  of  traction  depending  for  existence 
upon  the  relative  situation  of  points  in  the  skel- 
eton, it  is  evident  that  when  the  super  imposition  of 
twists  (§  71)  is  completed,  the  diagonal  lines  may 
disappear,  and  tJie  tractions  become  collateral.     The 


72 


diagonal  relations,  however,  would  be  restored  by 
very  slight  movements  of  the  points. 

§  74.  We  have  considered  the  right  posterior 
point  of  application  as  actively  working  in  the 
above  movements  of  excessive  action,  but,  since 
there  is  no  spring,  the  induced  action  of  this  point 
by  the  continued  working  of  its  diagonal  anterior 
point  (the  leftj  must  be  the  actual  course  of  the 
movement,  and  ive  may  regard  the  head  ball  action  in 
the  left  side  of  the  socket  as  the  only  active  one 
throughout.  The  secondary  forcing  point  being 
active  only  in  a  sufficient  degree  to  gather  up 
in  counter-action  the  line  developed  by  the  leading 
one. 

In  fact,  the  difference  between  halting,  by  equalizing 
the  four  ivinding  lines,  as  above,  and  locomotion,  is 
that,  in  thejirst,  the  subsequent  lines  are  formed  by 
induction  from  the  leading  one,  its  action  being  the 
moving  principle  throughout ;  and  as  the  effects  are 
distribided  through  the  frame,  the  first  movement  is 
continually  repeated,  while  in  the  second  the  lines  form 
independently  and  separately. 

Of  course  the  snake  may  halt  by  merely  ceasing 
the  action  with  wliich  it  is  moving,  say  just  as  it 
has  come  to  the  ground  with  the  anterior  point 
gathering,  and  when  its  shape  would  be  that  of  the 


73 


simple  S  S  curves.  We  have  selected  the  third  result, 
not  that  it  is  the  animal's  usual  way  of  halting, 
but,  that  it  is  the  one  important  for  our  purpose. 

§  75.  To  retake  diagonal  gathering  from  the 
shape  of  "  superimposition  of  twists,"  or,  as  it  might 
be  termed,  "  double  diagonal-  gathering,"  it  will  not 
be  necessary  to  repeat  the  diagonal  workings  of 
counter-action,  for,  since  both  gatherings  are  now 
present,  the  yielding  of  their  lines  of  traction  by 
one  pair  of  forces  to  the  other,  or  the  overcoming 
of  one  pair  of  forces  by  the  other,  will  restore  the 
one-pair  gathering  on  the  shghtest  movement  of 
the  head. 

§76.  The  "Third  Kesult"  will  form  the  basis 
of  the  system  of  Setting-up. 

§  77.  It  should  seem  that  the  perfect  locomotive 
actions  of  all  animals  are  directed  by  the  eyes. 

"Whether  the  eyes  lead  these  actions,  or  only 
form  a  pivot  for  them,  the  steady  point  of  every 
movement  centres  on  the  eye-pupil.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  that  these  poles  of  all  the  described 
cui'ves  should  be  freed  fi'om  the  necessity  of  ac- 
companying any  particular  part  in  its  movements. 
Such  freedom  is  obtained  partly  by  the  appropria- 
*  tion  of  two  or  three  vertebrae  to  form  a  neck,  and 
partly  by  an  independent  discharge  of  the  real  or 


74 


relative  turning  movements  of  the  eyeballs.  The  dis- 
charge is  secured  by  a  peculiar  arrangement  which 
gives  a  steady  appui  to  the  ball,  during  the  instant 
in  which  the  small  muscles  that  move  it,  discharge 
the  twists  received  by  them  in  accommodating 
themselves  to  the  lines  of  traction  of  the  body.  The 
muscle  on  the  inner  side  of  each  eye  is  made  much 
longer  than  the  others,  and  instead  of  simply  fixing 
itself  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  front  of  the  eye- 
ball socket,  is  there  passed  through  a  ligamentous 
loop,  in  which  it  slips  freely,  and  then  bending  at 
a  right  angle,  proceeds  to  the  rear,  to  be  fixed  at 
the  back  part  of  the  socket.  The  counter-turns 
received  by  this,  the  ^^  internal  oblique  muscle,'"  are 
discharged  by  its  slipping  in  the  loop,  while  yet 
the  eyeball  is  kept  steadily  in  place  by  it.  This 
muscle  m&y,  lohen  tivisted,  be  regarded  as  an  S,  or  as 
a  rib,  of  which  the  eyeball  is  the  foot  end.^ 

§  78.  There  is  one  more  point  in  the  anatomy  of 
the  snake  which  it  is  requisite  to  notice  in  connec- 
tion with  our  subject,  namely,  the  Lungs. 

Although  these  organs  be  more  imperfectly  con- 
stituted in  the  snake  than  in  the  higher  animals, 
they  yet  fulfil  the  function  of  expanding  the  chest 


*See§  133  for  detail.    The  relative  action  of  the  muscle  remaining  the 
same  in  the  higher  animals  as  in  the  snake. 


75 


so  as  to  form  an  elastic  cushion,  compressible  in 
any  direction,  but  always  ready  to  fill  out  again. 
On  this  cushion  the  front  ribs  rest  themselves,  and 
not  only  are  the  movements  thus  made  more 
smoothly,  but  achial  aid  is  given  to  the  ensuing 
gathering  hy  the  expansion  of  the  air  compressed  in 
the  lungs  during  the  spring. 

We  shall  have  occasion  to  go  thoroughly  into  the 
discussion  of  that  action  of  the  anterior  and  pos- 
terior parts  of  the  lungs,  which  in  the  higher  ani- 
mals belongs  to  the  anterior  and  posterior  portions 
of  the  central  S  curve  of  the  body,  and  shall  post- 
pone further  consideration  of  the  subject  to  that 
time.  We  may,  however,  observe  that  the  form 
which  would  give  the  greatest  capacity  to  that  pai-t 
of  the  body  in  which  the  lungs  are  situated,  is 
that  of  the  full  gathered  superimposition  of  ticists 
(§  71).  In  this  the  ribs  are  raised  toward  the  head 
iDy  their  ground  ends  as  much  as  possible,  while 
the  point  where  the  two  turns  meet  is  also  raised 
outward  by  the  depression  of  their  spinal  ends. 


76 
PART    TIT. 

APPLICATION   TO   THE   HIGHER  ANIMALS. 

§  79.  Kegarding,  then,  the  snake's  contortions 
as  exemplifying  the  fundamental  mechanics  on 
which  the  locomotions  of  quadiTipeds  and  man  are 
based,  we  observe  in  these  higher  animals — 

1st. — That  the  spine  is  not  so  pliable  as  in  the 
snake ;  but  that  it  is  still  a  most  elastic  rod,  made 
up  of  httle  blocks  of  bone,  every  two  of  which,  in- 
stead of  having,  as  in  the  snake,  a  ball  and  socket 
joint  at  their  surfaces  of  co-adaptation,  are,  as  it 
were,  threaded  together  throughout  the  two  sur- 
faces by  an  infinite  number  of  short,  strong  elastic 
filaments,  which,  rising  from  the  whole  surface  of 
one  block,  run  into  the  whole  corresponding  sur- 
face of  the  other,  and  form  a  solid  elastic  mass- 
between  them. 

2d. — That  from  a  number  of  the  vertebrse  the 
ribs  have  been  removed.  In  fact,  two  such  vacant 
spaces  exist,  one  at  each  end  of  the  spine,  and  be- 
tween them  is  the  space  to  which  ribs  remain  at- 
tached. 

3d. — That,  on  this  space,  the  motion  and  the 
elasticity  of  the  anterior  ribs  is  very  much  re- 
duced, in  comparision  with  the  posterior  ones,  and 


77 


that,  if  the  analogies  are  to  be  carried  out,  this  re- 
duction must  be  supplemented  by  the  movement 
of  other  parts  not  present  in  the  snake. 

§  80.  The  front  space,  bare  of  ribs — the  neck — 
carries  the  head,  and  the  head,  as  comparative 
anatomy  has  shown,  is  made  up  of  consolidated 
vertebrae.  Like  the  vertebrae  of  the  back,  the  head 
carries  ribs,  viz.,  the  fore-limhs  (or  arms),  anal- 
ogues of  which  have  been  traced,  du'ectly  con- 
nected with  it  and  the  loiuer  jaw. 

It  is  easy,  therefore,  to  conceive  that  the  head 
may  gather  to  itself,  by  means  of  its  spinal  attach- 
ments, of  the  connections  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  of 
those  of  the  fore-hmbs,  all  the  threads  of  force  col- 
lected by  the  trank  and  limbs,  and  that,  thus  hold- 
ing the  moulds  of  all  motions,  it  may  direct  their 
subsequent  developments. 

Thus  the  articulation  of  the  head  is  the  working 
medium  between  the  brain  and  the  body,  when  it 
gathers  the  ribs  and  limbs  of  appui  on  one  bear- 
ing, with  the  eye  diagonal  to  the  rear  appui, 
as  the  pivot,  and  when,  completing  this  gathering, 
with  the  same  eye  as  a  point  of  direction,  it 
double  tmsts  them  on  the  other  bearing,  and 
holds  the  nascent  curves  of  replacement  ready  to 
discharge  their  predecessors. 


78 


During  these  movements,  not  only  do  the  fore- 
limbs,  after  moving  with  the  body,  finally  settle 
into  position  with  entire  reference  to  the  head,  but 
the  lower  jmv,  experiencing  similar  effects  from 
the  movements  of  the  body,  as  conveyed  to  it 
through  the  lungs,  finally  clinches  the  whole  by  its 
reaction  on  the  head. 

From  this  condition  of  "  qatJiering,''  in  which 
the  elements  of  motion  have,  so  to  speak,  their 
orthographic  projection  on  the  base  of  the  skull, 
the  head,  by  the  slightest  positive  or  relative 
change  in  its  bearings  on  the  spine,  may  initiate, 
and  by  again  changing  these  bearings,  may  com- 
plete any  movement. 

It  is  in  this  sense  that  we  may  consider  the  head 
to  be  the  governor  of  all  perfect  motion.  In  de- 
formed movement  there  is  a  failure  of  straight 
connection  with  the  head  at  certain  points,  and 
this  default  of  such  connection  must  be  made  up 
for  by  extra  and  eccentric  movements,  which  de- 
stroy the  steadiness  of  the  body. 

§  81.  The  hmder  space,  bare  of  ribs  (the  loins) 
carries,  at  its  extreme  end,  a  hollow  but  solid 
framework  of  bones  called  the  pelvis.  This  con- 
sists of  the  two  hip-bones,  immovably  joined  to- 
gether in  front  by  the  meeting  of  two  bones  called 


79 


the  pubis-bones,  and  as  immovably  connected  be- 
hind by  another  bone  called  the  sacrum,'^  These 
bones,  though  seemingly  one  mass  with  the  pelvis 
in  the  full-grown  animal,  are  originally  distinct. 

The  sacrum  is  evidently  an  analogue  of  the 
spinal  vertebrae,  and  we  shall,  further  on,  attempt 
to  show  that  the  puhis-hones  represent  a  continua- 
tion of  the  breast-bone,  the  hip-bones  standing  for 
the  ribs. 

The  sacrum  is  a  direct  continuation  of  the  spine, 
and  this,  in  quadrupeds,  is  again  continued  by  the 
tail. 

The  pelvis  is  not  connected  with  the  spine  by  a 
free  joint  as  is  the  head,  but  by  the  same  sort  of 
juncture  that  exists  between  the  several  vertebrae 
of  which  the  spine  is  made  up. 

The  whole  pelvis,  thus  moving  in  one  piece,  an- 
swers, in  locomotion,  the  pui-pose  of  an  exagge- 
rated vertebrae  belonging  to  the  trunk  of  the 
body  as  a  whole,  and  furnishing  an  extended 
sweep  for  the  thigh-bone  sockets  which  it  carries. 
The  trunk  of  the  body  may  thus  be  considered  as  a 
COMPOSITE  SPINE,  of  ivMch  the  legs  and  J  for  a  certain 
-share  in  their  motion,  thefoi^e-limhs  are  tlie  ribs. 

*  The  pubis-bones  are.  at  their  rear  ends,  keyed  to  the  hip-bones  by 
other  two  bones  (one  on  each  side),  called  the  ischium-boues,  which  in 
4nan  form  the  seat  bones. 


80 


§  82.  The  ribs  of  the  higher  animals  are,  Hke 
like  those  of  the  snake,  attached  to  the  spine  by 
ball  and  socket  joints.  The  relative  positions  of 
the  ball  and  socket,  however,  are  reversed,  the 
rib  now  carrying  the  ball;  and  tivo  vertebrae,  at 
the  sides  of  their  junctions,  carrying  the  socket. 
Also,  the  further  extremities  of  the  ribs,  which  in 
the  snake  would  have  been  their  "  ground-ends,'* 
are  elastically  joined  on  either  side  to  a  solid 
piece  of  bone  called  the  hreast-hone,  or  "  sternunL' 

This  bone,  which  represents  all  the  ligamentous^ 
scutae  of  the  snake  (§§  44,  66)  consolidated,  may 
be  considered  as  a  substitute  ground  on  which  the 
ribs  perform  their  movements,  as  those  of  the 
snake  do  on  the  real  ground.  At  each  spring  the 
breast-bone  is  taken  up  and  carried  to  the  position 
required  for  the  next  effort. 

Almost  the  whole  length  of  this  artificial  ground 
is  occupied,  on  both  its  sides,  by  the  attachment 
of  only  part  of  the  ribs,  namely,  of  the  first  divis- 
ion from  the  head,  called  the  "  true  ribs."  These 
are  separately  articulated  to  it — each  rib  by  the 
end  of  its  elastic  prolongation. 

Of  the  remaining  division,  called  the  "false 
ribs,''  each  rib  has  a  longer  and  still  more  elastic 
prolongation  than  a  true  rib ;  but  these  prolonga- 


81 


tions,  before  reaching  the  breast-bone,  become 
united  on  each  side  into  a  single  one,  and  the  two 
resulting  continuations  are  attached  to  the  hinder 
— in  man  the  lower — end  of  the  breast-bone. 

The  true  ribs  diminish  in  length  and  capability 
of  independent  movement  as  thej  approach  the 
neck,  so  that  the  upper  ones  have  \erj  httle  be- 
yond a  hinge-like  movement  at  the  spine,  as 
their  front  ends  are  raised  when  the  breast-bone 
is  drawn  up  by  muscles  from  above,  in  connection 
with  the  outer  tui'ning  of  the  false  ribs  below. 

In  man  there  are  seven  true  and  five  false  ribs  ; 
in  the  horse,  eight  true  and  ten  false ;  in  the  Hon 
and  cat,  nine  true  and  four  false ;  in  the  gii-affe, 
eight  tme  and  six  false  ;  variations  which,  no 
doubt,  favour  certain  pecuharities  in  the  motion  of 
each  animal. 

In  this  way  the  breast-bone  answers,  at  its 
sides,  to  only  a  part  of  the  length  along  which  the 
rib  sockets  extend,  being,  in  fact,  only  imder  those 
of  the  true  ribs. 

At  its  rear,  however,  the  breast-bone  is  power^ 
fully  acted  on  by  the  false  ribs,  and  these,  prin- 
cipally, give  it  direction  and  push  it  forward,  the 
false  ribs  of  either  side  driving  their  motion 
through  the  breast-bone  up  to  the  head  by  a  con- 


82 


nection  presently  to  be  described.  At  the  head  it 
is  received  and  adjusted  with  the  action  of  the 
true  ribs  of  the  other  side. 

It  is  possible  that  we  ought  to  assign  one  or  two 
of  the  true  ribs  to  the  rear  C  of  the  spinal  curve ;  but 
the  proportionately  greater  length  of  that  portion  of 
the  spine  to  which  the  false  ribs  are  attached,  and 
the  fact  that  the  first — or  first  two — upper  ribs"^ 
seem  rather  to  belong  to  the  joint  of  the  root  of 
the  neck  (§  90)  and  the  spine  than  to  the  front  C, 
might  give  sufficient  preponderance  of  force  as 
propellers  to  the  false  ribs  alone  (§  62).  This 
being  the  case,  toe  have  adopted  the  more  convenient 
nomenclature  of  assigning  all  the  true  ribs  to  the  an- 
terior C,  and  all  the  false  ribs  to  the  ijosterior  one. 

§  83.  If  we  give  an  artificial  ground  to  the  ribs, 
one  S  in  the  spine  will  be  required  to  work  on  it ; 
if  we  attach  two  rear  appui  to  the  trunk  thus 
formed,  another  S  will  be  required  for  their  sup- 
port ;  and  if  the  whole  is  to  be  centred  on  the 
head,  still  another  S  will  be  required  for  combin- 
ing the  two  first,  and  this  last  S  will  require  some 
separate  appui  on  which  to  effect  this  combination. 

These   requirements,  we   think,   are  fulfilled  in 


*  These  ribs,  we  believe,  are  bent  from  front  to  lear  in  a  different 
tlircction  from  the  other  true  ribs. 


83 


the  back  or  dorsal  vertebrae,  as  the  central  S ;  the 
loins,  or  lumbar  vertahra^  and  sacrum,  as  the  S  for 
moving  tlie  hinder  limbs,  or  appiiis  proper  of  the 
trunk  ;  the  neck  as  the  S  of  combination ;  and  the 
arms  as  the  appnis  of  combination. 

We  shall  name  these  three  S  S  S,  beginning  at 
the  head,  iliejirst  S,  second  S,  and  third  JS ;  or,  the 
7iecJc  S  ;  the  central,  and  from  its  more  simple  ac- 
tion, the  opjhidian'^'  !S ;  and  the  loin  S. 

The  relative  actions  of  these  three  S  S  S  be- 
come quite  changed  from  those  of  three  successive 
S  S  S  in  the  snake,  as  will  be  explained. 

§  84.  The  cavity  formed  by  the  ribs  and  the 
breast-bone  is  filled  by  the  lungs,  and  from  the 
extremities  of  the  breast-bone  go  muscular  cords 
of  connection  to  the  head  and  to  the  pelvis. 

These  cords  of  connection  join  the  actions  of  the 
central  or  opliidian  S,  with  those  of  the  loin  S, 
and  the  actions'  of  both  these  with  those  of  the 
neck  S. 

The  trunk,  composed  of  the  dorsal  and  lumbar 
vertebrae,  the  ribs  and  sternum  and  the  pelvis,  may 
be  regarded  as  an  S,  of  which  the  hinder  limbs  are 
the  ribs.     We  shall  call  this  the  composite  S,     The 

*  Acting  through  the  ribs,  directly  on  its  artificial  ground,  it  has  a 
true  opliidian  or  snake  action. 


84 


pelvis  is  a  vertebra  in  it.  Its  posterior  C  is  sep- 
arated from  its  anterior  C  by  the  diaphragm^ 
which  will  be  described  further  on. 

The  head,  neck,  shoulder  blades  and  this  "  com- 
posite spine  "  may  again  be  regarded  as  a  com- 
pound spine,  of  which  the  arms  are  the  ribs.  We 
shall  call  this  the  hicomposite  spine.  The  head, 
taken  with  the  shoulder  blades,  is  a  vertebra  in  it, 
distinguished,  however,  from  the  pelvis  as  a  ver- 
tebra, in  that  while  the  "  composite  spine "  gov- 
erns the  pelvis,  the  head  governs  the  "  bicomposite 
spine." 

To  some  extent  the  arms  act  as  ribs  to  the 
composite  spine ;  also,  and  through  them,  the 
head  draws  in  a  direct  way  on  the  hinder  Hmbs.^ 

§  85.  Five  vertebrce — two  for  each  flexure,  and  one 
for  the  point  of  contrary  flexure — are  the  smallest 
number  of  which  an  independent  S  curve  could  be 
composed.  If  now,  we  alloiv  one  of  each  end  for  its 
articulations  with  other  points,  we  have  seven  verte- 


*  Although  the  head  be  the  "  governour  "  and  the  spine  the  proper 
"  origin  of  all  movement,"  movement  may,  in  the  higher  animals,  be 
initiated  in  other  parts.  For  example,  a  man  in  dropping  from  a 
height  may,  by  thrusting  forward  his  hands  or  jerking  back  his  elbows, 
and  thus  changing  the  centre  of  gravity  by  altering  the  shape  of  the 
body,  through  the  medium  of  the  breast-bone,  change  very  materially 
the  point  on  which  he  alights  from  Avhat  it  would  otherwise  have  been. 
A  horse  in  taking  a  fence,  often  does  not  know  the  ground  on  the  far- 
ther side,  and  no  doubt  while  yet  in  air,  he  can,  to  some  extent,  deter- 
mine his  point  of  descent. 


85 


hrm,  the  unvarying  number  contained  in  the  neck  of 
man  and  (with  the  exception  of  the  sloth)  of  quad- 
rupeds. 

§  86.  The  breast-bone  is  steadied  at  its  upper 
part  by  muscles  which — replaced  by  equivalents 
m  quadrupeds — exist  in  their  most  simple  manner 
in  man.  We  shall,  therefore,  since  we  do  not  aim 
at  discussing  the  minute  differences  of  action 
which  make  an  alteration  in  these  muscles  neces- 
sary, consider  the  type  given  in  man  as  applicable 
for  reference,  whenever  we  speak  of  these,  or  in- 
deed of  any  of  the  muscles. 

In  man  these  muscles, — from  the  upper  end  of 
the  breast-bone,  called  the  sterno-cleido-mastoids, 
or  as  we  shall  generally  name  them,  the  sterno- 
mastoids, — are  very  prominent,  and  may  be  clearly 
seen  one  on  each  side  of  the  neck,"^*  passing  from 
the  top  of  the  breast-bone  upward,  backward  and 

*  These  muscles  take  their  name  in  man  from  their  various  attach- 
ments, viz.,  each  on  its  side,  to  the  breast-bone,  the  collar-bone,  and  the 
mastoid  protuberance  of  the  skull,  just  behind  the  ear.  In  such  ani- 
mals as  have  no  collar-bone  the  middle  word  of  the  name  evidently 
falls  away. 

In  the  horse  this  muscle  is  replaced  by  two—"  one,  the  '  sterno-max- 
illarji,'  is  fixed  to  the  anterior  end  of  the  sternum,  and  passes  up  the 
front  of  the  neck  to  be  attached  to  the  back  part  of  the  lower  jawbone  ; 
the  other,  the  levator  humeri,  is  fixed  to  the  front  and  upper  part  of  tlie 
round  bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  by  a  detached  slip  to  the  upper  end  of 
the  sternum,  whence  it  passes  up  the  front  and  side  of  the  neck,  to  be 
attached  to  the  mastoid  projection  of  the  skull,  giving  off,  on  the  way». 
slips  which  are  attached  to  the  four  or  five  upper  neck  vertebrae." 


86 


outward  to  either  side  of  the  head,  behind  the  ear. 
They  are  so  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  skull, 
near  to  and  on  each  side  of  its  articulation  with 
the  spine,  that  they  either  draw  the  head  down 
toward  the  breast-bone,  or  the  breast-bone  up- 
ward toward  the  head,  according  as  the  resisting 
lines  of  the  spine,  as  developed  in  the  neck,  are 
brought  forward  or  backward  between  the  two 
muscles,  and  so  by  their  positions  give  the  pre- 
ponderating leverage  one  way  or  the  other.  That 
is  to  say,  if  the  plane  of  junction  of  the  two  C  C 
of  the  neck  S  be  well  thrust  forward  between  the 
stemo-mastoids,  the  action  of  these  muscles  will 
raise  the  breast-bone ;  whereas,  if  this  be  retired, 
the  same  action  will  lower  the  head. 

Suppose  the  chest  well  raised  and  filled  with 
air,  and  the  neck  fully  gathered  by  the  "  super- 
imposition  "  of  the  diagonal  counter-actions  (§  71), 
the  plane  of  junction  between  its  two  C  C  will  be 
advanced,  and  fi*om  this  position  every  change  of 
bearing  in  the  head  articulation  will  alter  the 
drawing  of  the  sterno-mastoids  at  the  upper  cor- 
ners of  the  breast-bone,  whether  of  both  equally 
or  of  one  preponderatingly.  Thus  a  perfect  action 
of  the  neck  is  all  important  to  perfect  inovement. 

§  87.  The   sterno-mastoids  must  partake  of  the 


87 


double  -  twisting  action  shown  for  the  internal 
oblique  muscle  of  the  eye  (§  77),  although  with 
them  there  is  no  necessity  for  a  pulley  attachment, 
the  support  against  the  neck-spine  answering  the 
same  purpose. 

It  is  easily  seen  that  the  two  sterno-mastoids  ap- 
proach each  other  as  they  descend  in  fi-ont  of  the 
neck.  Thus  their  separate  act  ion  must  be  diagonal, 
ending,  in  fact,  for  each  at  the  diagonal  hip-joint, 
so  soon  as  the  intervening  ophidian  S  has  placed 
the  points  in  the  requisite  position,  by  moving  its 
substitute  ground,  the  breast-bone. 

§  88.  At  its  posterior  end  the  breast-bone  is  stead- 
ied against  tlie  pelvis  by  a  combination  of  muscles, 
which,  in  relation  to  the  pelvis,  carry  out  from  the 
breast-bone  a  working  in  harmony  with,  but  sub- 
ordinate to  that  proceeding  from  the  breast-bone, 
through  the  sterno-mastoids  toward  the  head. 

§  89.  In  the  snake  a  simple  ball  and  socket  joint 
at  the  head  answers  every  purpose,  for  allowing 
the  working  of  the  spine  over  the  ribs,  these  latter 
being  the  simple  and  only  appuis  ;  but  in  the 
higher  animals  another  arrangement  becomes  nec- 
essary. 

This  consists  in  dividing  the  simple  ball  and 
socket  articulation  of  the  snake  from  behind  for- 


88 


ward,  by  a  wedge-shaped  fissure,  and  giving  to 
each  of  the  parts  thus  separated  an  ovoidal  form. 
The  articulation  is  thus  divided  into  two  separate 
working  pieces,  one  used  when  the  head-ball 
pressure  is  from  the  left,  the  other  when  it  is  from 
the  right,  and  in  the  same  way  for  the  sockets. 

Bearing  in  mind  that  the  head  joint  always 
opens  in  front,  we  may  represent  this  new  form  of 
the  articulation  by  supposing  the  two  halves,  which 
Avould  be  obtained  by  the  longitudinal  division  of 
a  pear,  about  one  inch  long,  to  be  soldered  by 
their  flat  surfaces  to  the  base  of  the  skull,  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  points  converge  in  front,  while 
the  globular  ends  diverge  in  rear,  at  an  angle  va- 
rying in  different  animals,  according  to  the  mode 
of  action  to  be  accommodated. 

These  ovoidal  pieces  are  called  the  head-con- 
dyles,  and  have  each  a  separate  socket  of  corre- 
sponding shape  on  either  side  of  the  upper  surface 
of  the  first  vertebra  of  the  spine. 

§  90.  In  the  snake  a  couple  of  vertebrae,  freed 
from  the  ground,  are  all  that  is  required  in  order 
to  adjust  the  eccentric  movements  of  the  anterior 
part  of  the  spine  with  a  steady  position  of  the 
head ;  but,  as  we  have  seen  in  man  and  quadru- 
peds, there  is,  after  what  may  be  called  the  ophid- 


89 


ian  or  snake  movements  on  the  ribs,  another  set 
of  movements,  namely,  that  on  the  hinder  limbs, 
to  be  accommodated,  and  on  this  set  again,  in 
order  to  provide  for  the  master  movement  of  the 
fore-limbs — earned  to  its  perfection  in  man — there 
is  yet  another  set  of  movements  to  be  accommo- 
dated, namely,  that  on  these  fore-limbs  and  on  the 
lower  jaw. 

It  is  with  reference  to  these  requirements  that 
we  should  explain  the  necessity  for  a  complete  S 
in  the  neck,  added  to  the  couple  of  extra  vertebrae 
used  in  the  snake ;  and,  in  dividing  the  vertebrae 
for  this  purpose,  ice  should  place  the  one  or  two  ver- 
tehrce  ansivering  to  the  snake's  neck,  directly  under 
the  seventh  vertebra  of  the  neck  (§  82),  ivhere  they, 
aided  by  the  general  motion  of  the  part,  form  a  vie- 
TUAL  hall  and  socket  joint. 

The  separate  motions  of  the  trunk  and  of  the 
hmbs  may,  we  think,  be  easily  noticed  in  the 
horse,  and,  indeed,  Seeger,  a  Pi-ussian  author, 
in  his  "  Horsemanship,"  insists  much  upon  mark- 
ing it.     "  First  the  body  moves,  then  the  limbs." 

§  91.  In  the  chest  of  the  higher  animals,  as  has 
already  been  noticed,  the  ribs  have  great  mobility 
and  large  development  below,  while  at  the  ex- 
treme top  they  have  Ktfcle  of  either.     It  is  appar- 


90 


ent,  on  looking  at  this  arrangement,  that  although 
the  secondary  sections  of  the  anterior  winding- 
lines  (§§  25,  68)  might  be  easily  established,  from 
"  points  of  application "  acting  on  an  anterior 
plane  section,  just  below  the  first  pair  of  ribs,  and 
also  the  primary  sections  of  the  posterior  Hnes^ 
from  "  points  "  on  a  posterior  plane  at  the  summit 
of  the  lumbar  vertebrse,  yet  the  estabhshment  of 
the  primary  sections  of  the  anterior  lines,  and  of 
the  secondary  sections  of  the  posterior  lines,  would 
be  seriously  interfered  with,  unless  the  upper  part 
of  the  chest  be  allowed  considerable  eccentric 
movement,  such  as  shall  successively  bring  its  rib 
articulations  under  the  course  of  the  sectional 
lines  referred  to. 

This  eccentric  movement  is  allowed  and  regu- 
lated by  the  action  of  the  neck  S,  the  lower  part 
of  which  moves  with  the  upper  part  of  the  chest, 
and  must  adjust  itself  by  a  virtual  joint,  in  which 
the  lowest  neck  vertebra  and  one  or  two  of  the 
most  anterior  ribs  take  part,  and  which  we  shall 
call  the  "  neck  root  joints 

The  head  condyles  are  here  essential,  in  their 
character  as  two  separate  ball  and  socket  joints, 
because  of  the  break  in  the  "  composite  "  move- 
ment  caused  by  the  interposition  of  the  breast- 


91 


bone,  which  (§  87)  must  place  the  intermediate 
points  of  traction  in  position  before  the  head  and 
pelvis  act  upon  each  other.  This  makes  necessary 
an  extra  spiral-line  movement,  very  much  more 
extended  than  any  for  the  connection  of  the  S  S, 
or  C  C,  in  the  snake's  contortions,  and  wliich  can- 
not be  accommodated  on  one  surface.  It  takes 
place,  for  the  transition  from  the  anterior  ivinding- 
line  of  the  "  ophidian "  to  that  of  the  "  composite- 
spine''  at  the  posterior  end  of  eitJier  condyle  ;  and 
for  the  similar  movement  hetiveen  the  posterior  lines 
at  the  anterior  end. 

Further,  when  the  neck,  S,  allows  this  eccentric 
movement  to  the  upper  part  of  the  chest,  the  line 
of  pressure  becomes  oblique,  and  to  resist  this  the 
condyle-sides  must  be  rounded  in  the  perpendic- 
ular plane.  For  example,  the  inner  side  of  the 
left  condyle  to  meet  the  movement  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  chest  to  the  left,  which  accompanies 
the  establishment  of  the  primary  section  of  the 
left  anterior  line,  and  its  exterior  side  against  the 
movement  to  the  right,  which  accompanies  the 
formation  of  the  secondary  section  of  the  right 
posterior  line,  exerted  against  this  side  by  the  up- 
ward movement  of  the  socket  reciprocal  to  its 
withdrawal  on  the  right  §67  (h). 


92 


It  is  to  be  remembered  that,  although  a  part  or 
all  of  these  pressures  may,  at  first,  be  latent  in  the 
neck,  they  must  finally  be  satisfied  at  the  con- 
dyles when  the  spring  takes  place. 

§  92.  To  illustrate  what  has  been  said  : 

Suppose  the  left  anterior  winding-line  to  form 
in  the  ophidian  S.  Its  secondary  section  will,  to 
some  extent*,  throw  the  left  hind  and  right  fore- 
feet on  their  outer  bearings,  by  the  change  in  the 
centres  of  gravity  of  the  body.  It  will  also  cause 
some  movement  of  the  head-joint,  as  if  a  simple 
ball  and  socket  existed. 

At  the  following  combination  of  this  "  secondary 
section  "  into  the  "  composite  spine  "  (§  84),  the 
limbs  of  appui  will  be  thrown  decidedly  on  their 
outer  bearings,  and  the  relative  motion  at  the 
head  joint  will  be  that  of  the  posterior  extremity 
of  the  left  condyle  revolving,  to  the  rear  and  in- 
ward, in  its  socket. 

Its  'primary  section  will  occasion  a  further 
change  of  the  centres  of  gravity  in  the  same  di- 
rection as  at  first,  and,  as  it  moves  the  anterior 
cross-hne  end  toward  the  left  side,  will  require  a 
movement  of  the  upper  end  of  the  chest  in  that  di- 
rection, as  well  as  one  forward  to  correspond  with 


93 


the  movement  forward  of  the  head-ball  in  the 
socket  (§  67  a'). 

At  the  following  combination  of  this  "  primary 
section  "  into  the  ''  composite  spine,"  in  order  to 
keep  the  head  steady,  the  above  left  movement 
must  be  met  by  resistance  along  the  inner  edge  of 
the  left  condyle,  and  the  movement  forward  by 
the  moving  of  the  condyle  along  this  line. 

Suppose  next  the  right  posterior  line  to  form 

IN  THE  OPHIDIAN  S. 

Its  secondary  section  refleeied;!action — the  cross- 
line  end  being  displaced,  (§  32) — will  take  its  first 
re-action  against  the  anterior  plane^section  of  the 
spine  (in  which  the  anterior  point  of  application 
moved)  bringing  the  posterior  left  comer  of  the 
sternum  to  the  right,  as  the  false  ribs  come  on 
their  inner  bearings,  and  so  far  as  it  affects  the 
upper  part  of  the  sternum,  carrying  it  further  to 
the  left.  The  change  in  the  [centres^  of  gravity 
^will  commence  the  change  of  the  left  hind  and 
right  fore-legs  to  their  inner  bearings. 

At  the  following  combination  of  this  section  into 
the  "  composite  spine,"  the  tui'ning  of  the  socket 
against  the  anterior  end  of  the  left  condyle  would 
occur,  as  the   right   socket^is  withdrawn ;  but  as 


94 


{b')  cannot  take  full  effect  until  (h)  is  carried  out 
(§  37),  this  movement  will  be  held  in  abeyance. 

Its  secondary  section  direct  action  will  move  the 
anterior  part  of  the  body  to  the  left,  and  as  it 
brings  about  whatever  action  may  be  equivalent  ta 
putting  the  right  propeller  true  ribs  on  their  inner 
bearings,  the  alteration  of  the  centres  of  gravity 
will  bring  the  left  hind  and  right  fore-feet  still 
more  on  their  inner  bearings. 

At  the  following  combination  of  the  "  primary 
section "  of  the  posterior  winding-hne  into  the 
"  composite  spine,"  which,  in  this  order  of  succes- 
sion, would  be  the  final  action  in  forming  that 
spine,  the  diagonal  feet  of  appuis  will  be  brought 
strongly  upon  their  inner  bearings,  and  there  will 
be  required  to  resist  the  passage  of  the  body  to- 
the  right,  as,  reciprocally  to  the  withdrawal  of 
the  right  socket  the  left  socket  rises,  a  pressure 
of  this  latter  against  the  outer  edge  of  the  left 
condyle,  and  corresponding  with  the  suppressed 
advance  of  the  socket  (see  the  preceding  para- 
graph), a  passage  forward,  along  this  edge,  to 
the  anterior  point,  where,  finally,  a  turn  to  the  front 
and  inward  by  the  left  socket  will  discharge  the 
gathering,  so  soon  as  the  alternate  set  of  motions 
be  inaugurated  to  release  it. 


95 


§  93.  While  the  action  of  the  ophidian  and  com- 
posite S  S  tighten  the  right  corner  of  the  sternum, 
and  the  right  fore-leg  against  the  left  hind-leg,  a 
little  additional  motion  of  the  head-joint  tightens  the 
left  sterno-mastoid,  and  thus  produces  the  "  bicompo- 
site  /S"'  (§  84).  The  bracing  of  the  composite  and 
ophidian  S  S  is  diagonal,  that  of  the  bicomposite  is 
collateral. 

§  94.  In  this  gathering  movement  the  front  appui 
(here  the  right  fore  leg)  goes  tvifh  the  body,  and,  as 
we  shall  see,  the  free  fore-limb  (here  the  left)  prin- 
cipally and  finally  tuith  the  neck. 

§  95.  Each  motion  of  the  head  condyles  affects 
the  sternum  through  the  medium  of  the  neck  S,  but 
its  more  immediate  action,  through  the  sterno-mas- 
toids,  so  du'ectly  affects  this  bone,  that  if  a  head  con- 
dyle (not  an  anterior  point  of  application,  at  the  front 
of  the  chest,  and,  thus  the  "  bicomposite,"  not  the 
opHdian  S)  begins  the  gathering,  it  will  cause  the 
sternum  to  move  before  the  spine,  a  circumstance 
which,  as  we  shall  see  further  on,  may  explain 
those  movements  of  the  limbs— the  pace,  &c. — 
which  do  not  seem  to  be  strictly  diagonal. 

§  96.  In  attempting  to  follow  out  the  effects  of 
the  head  condyle  movements  on  the  sterno-mastoid 


96 


muscles,  a  very  important  clew  seems  to  be  af- 
forded by  the  analogy  of  those  muscles,  which,  in 
the  horse,  replace  the  sterno-mastoids  in  man. 
These  are  (see  note  to  86)  one  muscle,  which  goes 
from  either  upper  corner  of  the  sternum  to  the  rear 
part  of  the  lower  jaw,  so  that  its  action  will  close 
the  jaw  ;  or,  this  done,  bring  down  the  head  toward 
the  breast ;  and  a  second,  which  goes  from  the  raas- 
toid  protuberance,  and  the  anterior  C  part  of  the 
neck  S  to  the  upper  part  of  the  upper  arm-bone,  the 
action  of  which  is  "to  raise  the  shoulder  and  arm, 
and  at  the  same  time  draw  them  forward,  or,  these 
being  fixed,  to  turn  the  neck  and  head  to  one  side." 

We  should  conclude  from  these  facts,  as  an- 
alogues, that  certain  effects,  accompanying  the 
motions  given  to  the  sterno-mastoids  by  the  upper 
comers  of  the  sternum,  largely,  even  if  indirectly, 
affect  the  motions  of  the  lower  jaw  ;  and  also  that 
the  clavicle  (collar  bone)  in  man  secures  certain 
connections  between  the  motions  of  the  head  and 
the  arm-bone,  and  between  the  sternum  and  the 
lower  jaw,  which  for  the  horse  (it  having  no  collar 
bone)  must  be  supplied  by  extra  muscles. 

It  would  seem  that  when  the  sterno-mastoid  of 
the  left  side  was  dratvn  tight,  i.  e.,  (§  93),  when  the 


97 


hicomposite  spine  (§  84)  formed,  the  lower  jaw  should 
be  firmly  closed  and  set  on  the  left  side." 

Also  that,  under  the  same  circumstances,  the 
left  fore-leg  should  be  raised,  or  if  this  were  fixed, 
the  head  drawn  somewhat  to  one  side.  This  would 
corroborate  what  has  been  said  (§  94)  in  regard  to 
the  free  fore-leg  beiag  under  the  influence  of  the 
neck. 

Again,  as  the  left  stemo-mastoid  must  relax 
after  the  spring,  so  must  the  left  side  of  the  jaw, 
then  the  opposite  (here  right )  side  will  begin  to  take 
appui  in  its  socket,  we  expect  to  show  how  either 
side  of  the  jaw  gradually  sets  in  its  socket,  and 
how,  in  bearing  on  its  outer  or  inner  side,  its  actions 
resemble,  with  reversed  relations,  the  "  bearings  " 
of  the  ribs  and  limbs. 

§  97.  Great  as  is  the  analogy  as  to  shape  which 
the  fore-hmbs  have  to  the  hinder-ones,  this  analogy 
is  by  no  means  complete.  Both  are  modified  ribs, 
but  the  action  of  the  two  is  not  only  different,  in 
that  the  fore-limbs  act  more  largely  as  supporters, 
and  the  hind-limbs  as  propellers,  but,  while  the 
hind  Hmbs  follow  chiefly,  the  movements  of  the 
"composite  S,"  the  fore  Hmbs,  although  connected 

*  We  instance  the  left  side,  but,  of  course,  with  proper  changes,  the 
same  holds  good  for  the  right. 


98 


with  all  three  S  S  S,  finally  depend  directly  upon 
the  head. 

Thus,  although  supported  by  the  anterior  ribs, 
and  adapting  themselves  to  their  motions,  the 
shoulder-  blades  (which  carry  the  sockets  of  the  fore- 
limbs)  have  another  connection,  viz.,  that  of  the  neck, 
and  move  on  a  basis  exterior  to  the  trunk,  during 
the  virtual  crossing  of  the  median  line  by  those 
ribs.  During  this  time,  the  neck  is  the  S  of  which- 
ever fore-Umb  is  thus  engaged.  The  quasi  ball 
and  socket  motion,  at  the  base  of  the  neck,  is  the 
pivot  on  which  either  fore-hmb  changes  from  the 
trunk  to  the  neck  connection. 

The  shoulder-blades  are  connected  in  rear  with 
the  head  by  masses  of  muscle,  and  with  the 
whole  back  ridge  of  the  spine,  with  the  ribs  and 
with  the  pelvis,  either  directly  or  through  the  me- 
dium of  the  upper  part  of  the  arm-bone,  by  sheets 
of  the  same  substance.  To  the  neck  part  of  the 
spine  they  are  not  directly  attached,  but  are  joined 
on  either  side  by  muscles  to  the  whole  length  of 
a  cord  or  ligament,  which,  loosely  attached  to  the 
central  rear  line  of  the  neck  vertebrae,  stretches 
over  them  all,  from  the  head  to  the  projecting 
bone  of  the  lowest  neck  vertebra  in  man,  and  in 
the  horse  to  the  top  of  the  withers. 


99 


Jja. front  the  shoulder-blades  are  attached  to  the 
'breast-bone  and  to  the  front  of  the  ribs  by  large 
and  powerful  muscles,  and  the  breast-bone  being 
joined  to  the  head  by  the  stemo-mastoid  muscles, 
there  is,  in  this  way,  Si  front  attachment  of  the 
shoulder-blades  to  the  head.  The  massiveness 
of  these  connections  agrees  with  the  function  of 
the  fore-limbs  as  the  final  brace  on  which  all  the 
gatherings  are  collected. 

§  98.  In  the  horse  the  breast  muscles  suffice  for 
the  connection  in  front ;  but  in  man  the  collar-bones 
are  added.  These  are  articulated,  each  at  one 
end,  with  an  upper  corner  of  the  breast-bone,  and 
at  the  other  end  with  one  of  the  shoulder-blades. 

The  breast-bone  of  man  is  thus  enabled  to  ptish 
against  the  arm-bones,  as  well  as,  like  that  of  the 
horse,  to  draw  upon  them ;  and  the  head  of  man 
being,  during  the  working  of  the  condyles,  thus 
braced  against  the  "  substitute  ground  "  (§  82),  by 
the  collar-bones,  as  the  head  of  the  horse  is 
against  the  real  ground,  by  its  fore-legs,  the  sup- 
porting thrust  is  transmitted  to  the  pelvis,  and  in 
this  way  the  legs  of  a  man  can  act  both  as  com- 
plete "supporters"  and  complete  "propellers." 

§  99.  Thus,  frst,  the  intermediate  appui  of  the 
action  of  the  neck  is  the  sternum,  on  which  the 


100 


action  of  the  neck  follows,  nearly  to  completion, 
tlie  torsions  of  the  loins  and  of  the  ophidian  Sy 
making  the  centre  of  this  latter  betiveen  (the  lower 
points  of  the  shoulder-blades,'^)  the  centre  of  force,\  the 
neck,  being  itseK  the  centre  of  action.  Then  an- 
other torsion,  in  which  the  eyes  participate,  and 
into  which  are  brought  the  final  turn  of  the  limbs,, 
together  with  the  finishing  of  all  the  torsions, 
makes  the  head  the  governour  of  direction. 

§  100.  It  may  be  remarked  that  in  making  the 
foregoing  distinctions  of  three  S  S  S  and  of  sim- 
ple composite  and  bicomposite  spines,  no  one  of 
these,  in  a  perfect  body,  acts  without,  at  least  in 
some  degree,  affecting  the  others.  Thus,  the 
slightest  change  in  the  ophidian  S  should  alter 
the  line  of  gravity  over  the  feet,  and  require  a  mo- 
tion of-  the  whole  frame  to  adjust  it. 

§  101.  In  man  the  ^Ve  toes,  i\iQ  five  fingers,  and  the 
hones  which  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  in  the" sole 
of  the  foot  support  them,  would  seem  to  represent 
the  ends  of  five  ribs  belonging  to  five  vertebrae^ 
required  to  make  up  an  S  (§  85),  and,  as  such,  we 


*  Where,  as  will  be  seen  further  on,  is  also  the  centre  of  the  luugs*^ 
actioB. 

t  This  fundamental  centre  not  being  reached,  unless  the  working  of 
the  body  is  perfect,  even  a  moderate  distortion  by  the  right-hand  de- 
formity occasions  a  great  loss  of  power  and  accuracy  in  all  motion. 


101 


may  suppose  them  to  be  attached,  the  toes  to  the 
composite — the  fingers  to  the  bicomposite — spine 
(§  84).  The  bones  of  the  arms  and  legs  would 
then  be  the  consolidated  masses  of  these  sets  of 
five  ribs. 

To  avoid  confusion,  where  speaking  of  man  and 
animals  under  the  same  head,  we  shall  call  both 
fingers  and  toes  "  Digits,''  and  number  them  begin- 
ning with  the  thumb  or  great  toe,  frst,  second,  third, 
fourth  Sind  Jifth  digits. 

If  the  third  digit  ("  middle  "  finger  or  toe)  repre- 
sent the  centre  of  this  S,  the  fourth  and  fifth  digits 
will  receive  their  impressions  from  the  rear  C,  the 
first  and  second  from  the  front  C,  and  the  central 
one  from  both.  Indeed  we  may  go  further  and  say 
that  the  fifth  digit  represents  the  posterior  part  of 
the  rear  C,  the  fourth  the  anterior  part,  the  second 
and  first  the  same  for  the  front  C.  Then  (§§  25,  92, 
96)  the  fifth  digit  receives  its  impressions  fi'om  the 
formation  of  the  secondary  section  of  the  anterior 
winding  hne,  the  second  from  the  estabHshment  of 
the  primary  section  of  this  line,. the /owr^A  digit 
from  the  establishment  of  the  primary  section  of 
the  posterior  winding  line,  and  the  frst  from 
the  formation  of  the  secondar}^  section  of  that 
line.  They  will,  also,  in  these  connections  be  re- 
5* 


102 


lated  to  tlie  actions  of  the  liead  condyles  (§  92)  and 
to  those  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  latter  will  be  more 
fully  considered  hereafter. 

§  102.  It  will  be  observed  that,  regarding  the 
fore  and  hind  limbs  as  ribs,  the  counter  torsions  in 
their  length  can  no  longer,  as  in  the  real  ribs,  be 
received  by  the  elasticity  of  their  substance ;  ac- 
cordingly, separate  joints  are  substituted  for  elas- 
ticity. Again,  were  the  bearings  mere  bevels 
(§  51),  the  passage  from  one  to  the  other  would  be 
very  rough ;  and,  unless  the  bevels  were  very 
broad,  quite  insufficient  for  the  extent  of  motion. 
This  is  remedied  by  the  formation  of  the  foot  of 
tlie  higher  animals.  In  these,  however,  it  is  un- 
necessary that  the  first  digit  appear  as  an  actual 
appui,  if  they  rest  on  four  feet ;  it  is  only  in  man, 
and,  to  some  extent  in  a  few  other  animals,  that 
the  development  and  spreading  inward  of  the  great 
toe  renders  possible  the  steady  change  in  the  S  S, 
as  their  forces  cross  the  median*  line  without  any 
support  from  anterior  appuis. 

To  still  further  assimilate  the  perfection  of  sup- 
port to  that  which  the  snake  gains  from  a  completely 
underlying  set  of  appuis,  it  is  necessary  that  the 


*  Any  shoe  which  inteiferes  with  this  inward  spread  of  the  great  toe 
is  a  hindrance  to  marching. 


103 


digits  supporting  the  motions  of  the  rear  C  should 
still  remain  on  the  ground,  while  those  supporting 
the  front  C  are  being  brought  in  action.  Tliis  seems 
to  be  accomplished  for  the  hind  limbs  by  the  pro- 
jecting heel,  which,  by  means  of  the  strong  muscle 
passing  from  it  to  the  thigh  bone,  allows  of  the 
foot  being  rotated  on  to  its  outer  side,  while  the 
passing  line  of  gravity,  at  the  same  time,  brings  its 
inner  side  down,—  or  vice  versa.  The  elbow  in 
the  horse  may  answer  the  same  purpose  in  respect 
to  its  fore  limbs  ;  while  in  man  the  power  of  turn- 
ing at  the  wrist  should  seem  to  make  any  other 
appliance  unnecessary. 

The  heel  muscle  of  the  hind  limbs  subserves,  of 
<?ourse,  other  purposes  ;  being  one  of  many  which 
;give  to  the  limb,  and  that  mth  vastly  increased 
force,  all  the  elasticity  of  the  most  elastic  ribs.  "^ 


*  It  maj'  be  doubted  that  the  heel  of  a  man  should,  in  perfect  loco- 
motion, touch  the  gi-ound  at  all;  but  the  idea  of  this  being  an  essential  part 
of  the  step  has  caused  an  ingenious  writer,  and  apparently  capital 
horseman,  Captain  Raabe,  of  the  French  cavalr}',  in  his  work  '•  Examen 
du  Cours  d'Equitation  de  M.  d'Aure,"  1854,  to  suppose  that  each  foot  of 
a  man,  when  walking,  goes  through  the  motions  of  the  galloj)  of  a  horse, 
leading  with  the  left  leg  for  the  right  foot,  and  with  the  right  leg  for 
the  left  foot ;  that  is  to  say,  the  outer  edge  of  either  heel  stands  for  the 
horse's  outer  hind  foot  {1st.  beat) ;  the  inner  edge  of  the  heel  and  the 
outer  toes,  for  the  inner  hind  and  outer  fore-foot  (2d.  beat) ;  and  the 
great  loe  for  the  inner  or  leading  fore-foot  (^d.  beat).  He  says  the 
change  of  the  leading  foot,  which  can  thus  be  performed  in  place 
at  each  atep  b\'  man  (as  in  "maik  time'),  was  never  perforaied  by  any 


104 


§  103.  In  the  hear,  dec,  the  pieces  of  the  foot  are 
still  five,  and  all  of  them  are  still  applied  flat  on 
the  ground.     In  the   dog  they  are  reduced  to  four  ; 
the    digits  themselves   are   still  put  flat   on   the 
ground,  but  the  bones  (analogous   to  the  palm  of 
the  hand  in  man)  which  carry  the  digits,  are  raised 
upright.     In  the  horse,  ox,  <&c.,  not  only  these,  but 
all  tln-ee  sections  of  the  digits  (these  sections  may 
be  counted  in  the  joints  of  a  man's  fingers)  are  also 
set  upright,  and  the  animal  moves,  as  it  were,  on 
its  nails  which  have  now  become  "  hoofs."     At  the 
same   time,  in  these  last  animals,  the  bones  which 
carry  the  digits  have  been  very  much  lengthened, 
and    form  the    "  cannon."       In    the    horse,    the 
third  and  fourth   digit    (as  we  should     suppose) 
have    been    consolidated  into  one,  and   form,  by 
their  joints,  the  "large   and  small  pastern  bones" 
and  the   "coffin    bone."     In    the    cannon  of  the 
horse's    leg,    the    third  and   fourth  of  the   bones 
which  carry  the   digits,  are   consohdated  into  the 


horse,  excepting  "  Partisan,"  aD   animal,  by  subduing  which  Baucher 
founded  his  reputation. 

Thus,  Captain  Kaabe  seeks  to  establish  the  high  character  of  the 
human  walk,  and  to  refute  the  slander  which,  he  adds,  has  represented 
it  as  a  sort  of  broken  down  amble.  Our  description  would  count  the 
heel  as  a  support  only  when  supplying  the  failure  of  the  outer  toes  to 
perform  their  functions,  and,  therefore,  cannot  fit.  in  with  his  supposi- 
tion. 


105 


"cannon-bone"  and  the  second  and  fifth  remain  as 
the  "  splent-bones."  These  last  do  not  reach  down 
to  the  length  of  the  cannon  bone,  and  they  no 
longer  have  any  digits  to  cany.  In  the  horse  and 
in  the  dog,  the  first  digit  is,  at  the  most,  rejoresented 
by  some  dislocated  piece. 

The  hock-joint  is  formed  of  the  small  bones,  which, 
in  man,  compose  the  ankle  ;  and  the  "  point  of 
the  hock  "  is  the  projecting  heel  of  man.  In  like 
manner,  the  smaU  wrist  bones  are  all  found  repre- 
sented in  the  "  knee"  of  a  horse  or  ox,  while  in 
these  animals  the  elbow  rests  close  to  the  body. 

§  104.  In  the  bottom  of  the  horse's  foot,  two 
lobes,  divided  by  the  cleft  of  the  frog,  may  be  easily 
seen.  Now,  if  we  suppose  two  fingers  of  a  man's 
hand  to  be  placed  together,  the  ball  of  one  finger 
against  that  of  the  other — next,  that  while  the  nails 
grow  together  hehveen  the  fingers,  while  on  the  outer 
sides  the  nail  of  each  outer  finger  turns  and  pro- 
longs itseK  into  the  skin — Ave  have  only  to  draw 
away  the  skin  from  the  inner  face  of  these  nails,  to 
get  a  representation  of  the  bottom  of  the  horse's 
foot ;  the  nails  and  their  inflexed  continuations  stand- 
ing for  the  "  crust "  and  "  bars  ;  "  the  skin  outside  the 
turning  of  the  nails,  and  ivhat  is  drawn  back  from 
their  inner  surface,  for  the  "frog  ;"  and  the  portion 


106 


of  skin  stretched  by  this  drawing  hack,  for  the 
"soler 

If  the  foot  of  the  horse  contains,  as  we 
have  supposed,  only  two  digits,  we  must  look  for 
the  point  of  effect  of  the  secondary  section  of  the 
"  anterior  winding-line"  (§  101)  to  the  outer  splent 
bone  at  the  hock,  and  regra'd  it  as  only  mediately 
affecting  the  foot,  through  the  connection  of  this 
splent  bone  with  the  cannon  bone.  In  the  same 
way,  we  must  find  the  point  of  effect  of  the  second- 
ary section  of  the  posterior  line  on  the  inner  splent 
bone,  and  its  action  on  the  foot  only  mediate,  as  be- 
iore. 

The  action  of  the  secondary  section  of  the  j)OS- 
terior  lines  and  the  final  ad jastment,  which,  in  man, 
would  be  carried  through  the  thumb,  in  imaginary 
appui,  must,  for  the  horse,  depend  on  movement  in 
the  fore  legs,  and  in  the  quasi  ball  and  socket  at 
the  base  of  the  neck  (§  90),  an  unusual  require- 
ment for  this  movement  may  possibly  account  for 
the  "  dishing  "  of  a  raised  forefoot  in  some  horses. 
The  dishing  is  evidently  a  prolongation  of  its  in- 
ner bearing,  and  this  ^prolongation  may,  perhaps, 
be  owing  to  uncommonly  extended  action  of  these 
parts  before  the  "lift." 

The  ox,  &c.,  have  two  parts  to  the  hoof,  and,  if 


107 


tliese  parts  represent  each  tlie  consolidation  of  two 
digits,  i.  e.,  the  second  and  third  in  one,  the  fourth 
and  fifth  in  the  other,  the  fact  of  there  being  but 
,one  bone  in  the  cannon  of  these  animals  may  show 
that  all  the  bones  having,  in  this  case,  digits  to 
-carry  are  consolidated  into  one  for  action  upon 
them,  and  corroborate  the  supposition  that  the 
splent  bones  in  the  horse  remain  separate  as  the 
unemployed  connections  of  two  discarded  digits  in 
its  foot. 

§  105.  It  will  be  well,  perhaps,  before  giving  a 
description  of  the  diaphi'agm  to  make  some  allu- 
sion to  the  lungs,  although  a  more  detailed  exami- 
nation of  their  functions  will  be  made  further  on. 

It  has  been  remarked  (§  76)  that  when  the 
snake's  ribs  are  fuUy  under  the  influence  of  the 
double  turns  given  them  in  the  "  superimposition 
of  twists,"  then  the  chest  has  its  greatest  possible 
capacity,  and  that  as  a  consequence  of  this  the 
lungs,  which  fill  the  chest,  are  then  expanded  to 
their  greatest  limit. 

If  this  air  be  forcibly  detained  within  them 
dming  action,  the  lungs  will  form  an  elastic  cushion, 
w^hich  expands  after  every  compression.  They 
thus,  Hke  the  fly-wheel  in  machinery,  make  good 
£Lny  deficiency  in  force  from  other  sources  at  every 


108 


part  of  the  movement.  Compressed  by  one  gath- 
ering they  aid  in  initiating  the  next ;  supporting 
the  chest  they  form,  at  their  working  centre, 
(common  with  that  of  the  ophidian  S)  the  true 
centre  of  force  (§  99) ;  and  they  fulfill  another 
and  more  important  function  in  the  completion  of 
each  movement  of  locomotion ,  which  will  be  spoken 
of  in  connection  with  the  lower  jaw. 

§  106.  Within  the  ribbed  portion  of  the  trunk 
in  the  higher  animals,  are  the  lungs,  and  below  this 
portion  the  stomach,  bowels,  &c.  The  two  are  sepa- 
rated by  a  sheet  of  tendon  stretched  horizontally 
across  the  bottom  of  the  chest  and  attached  by 
muscular  fibres  to  the  upper  edges  of  the  lowest 
ribs,  and  to  the  cartilage-prolongations  which  go 
from  them  to  the  lower  end  of  the  breast  bone. 

This  sheet  of  tendon  with  its  muscular  border  is 
called  the  Diaphragm.  In  our  description  of  it 
and  of  the  muscular  fibres  which  stretch  it  we  shall 
speak  in  general  terms,  aiming  simply  at  convey- 
ing such  an  idea  of  its  action  as  may  be  of  service 
in  explaining  the  process  of  "  Setting-up,"  when 
we  come  to  that  final  object  of  our  work. 

The  diaphragm  is  described  in  anatomical  works 
as  consisting  of  three  lobes,  whose  shape  and  situ- 


109 


ation  may  be  represented  by  a  trefoil^  having  its 
stem  fixed  to  the  spine. 

The  muscular  fibres  form  a  border  from  the 
edges  of  the  two  tendinous  side  lobes  to  the  lower 
rim  of  the  chest.  They  will,  of  course,  stretch  the 
diaphragm,  when  the  ribs  turn  so  as  to  favor  this 
action,  viz.,  concave  surfaces  of  ribs  to  the  front,, 
i.  e.,  the  outer-bearing.  The  muscular  fibres  from 
the  front  part  of  the  central  lobe  going  toward  the 
breast  bone  will  complete  this  stretching,  when 
the  heads  of  the  ribs,  by  turning  in  a  contrary 
direction,  i.  e.,  on  their  inner-bearing,  and  sinking 
back  into  their  sockets  shall  give  a  double  twist  to 
the  ribs. 

So  far,  the  movements  of  the  diaphragm  are  gov- 
erned by  the  secondary  section  of  the  anterior  loind- 
ing-line,  as  to  the  older  bearing,  and  by  the  primary 
section  of  the  j^osterior  line  as  to  the  inner  bearing. 

The  primary  section  of  the  anterior  line  simply 
increases  the  effect  of  the  secondary ;  but  the 
secondary  section  of  the  j^osterior  line  which  (§  25) 
gives  inner  bearing  to  the  upper  C  C  of  the  S  S, 
has  its  action  in  stretching  the  diaphragm,  aided  by 
additional  muscular  fibres.  These  form  two  long, 
thick  muscles  which,  between  them,  gather  to- 
gether the  tendinous  fibres  from   the  whole  sheet 


110 


of  the  diaphragm  at  the  rear,  as  if  the  "  trefoil  " 
stem  were  split  in  two.  They  then  pass,  the  one 
on  the  right,  the  other  on  the  left  of  the  upper  ver- 
tehrce  of  the  loins,  and  are  fixed,  as  they  descend,  to 
those  vertebrae  which  we  should  consider  as  form- 
ing the  upper  C  of  the  third  S  of  the  spine  (§  83). 
From  these  vertebrae,  as  points  d'appui,  their  ac- 
tion gives  a  final  stretching  to  the  diaphragm,  in 
correspondence  with  the  final  inward  bearing 
which  is  given  to  the  whole  body  by  the  action  of 
the  secondary  section  of  the  posterior  line,  when, 
in  the  bicomposite  spine  (§  93),  it  accompanies  the 
motion  of  the  condyle  socket  along  the  outer  edge 
of  the  head  condyle.  These  muscles  are  called 
the  "  Pillars  of  the  Diaphragm.'' 

§  107.  The  diaphragm  supports  the  lower  surface 
of  the  lungs,  and  thus,  from  the  double-twisting 
action  of  the  spine,  which  draws  the  diaphragm 
flat,  as  well  as  extends  the  ribs,  we  have  the  chest 
expanded  in  two  directions,  length  and  diameter. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  above  arrangement  of  the 
diaphragm  is  fitted  to  act  in  two  parts,  a  right  and 
a  left.  These  conjoin  their  actions  when  the 
^'  curves  of  superimposition  "  are  in  force.* 


*  It  may  be  added  that,  under  the  diaphragm  lies,  on  the  left  side, 
ithe  stomach,  on  the  right,  the  liver.    Any  habitual  enlargement  of 


ill 


§  108.  Beginning  their  upper  attachments  on 
each  side,  behind  and  parallel  with  the  lower  at- 
tachments of  the  pillars  of  the  diaphragm,  that  is 
to  say,  on  the  upper  C  of  the  third  S,  are  two  long 
and  thick  muscles  called  the  '' Fsooe.''  They  de- 
verge  from  each  other  obliquely,  outward  and 
downward,  until,  passing  from  the  inside  of  the 
pelvis,  they  reach  the  thigh  bones,  to  each  of  which 
a  psoas  muscle  is  so  fixed  that  by  its  contraction 
the  thigh  bone  is  rolled  outward.  Thepsooe  muscles, 
-as  we  should  suppose,  turn  with  the  effect  of  the  pri- 
mary sections  of  the  anterior  tvinding  lines  on  the  upper 
G  C,  and,  with  the  "pillars,"  complete  the  analogy 
of  the  diaphragm  to  the  '  digastrics,"  two  small  but 
focal  muscles  to  be  presently  mentioned. 

§  109.  The  various  muscles  above  referred  to 
mark  out,  we  think,  the  leading  lines  by,  and  on 
which  the  curvatures  of  compression  and  extension 
are  formed.  They  are  assisted  by  a  multitude  of 
other  muscles,  some  larger,  some  smaller,  which  all 
work  in  harmony  with  them,  if  the  frame  be  undis- 
torted. 

§  110.  As  centres  of  formation  for  the  new  curves. 


either  may,  by  interfering  with  the  working  of  the  diaphragm,  induce 
•distortion.  Such  trouble  with  the  stomach  would,  by  enlarging  and 
fixing  the  course  of  the  secondary  section  of  the  left  anterior  winding- 
line,  favoiir  the  right-handed  deformity. 


112 


as  well  as  actual  workers  in  giving  the  final  turn 
in  discharging  the  old  ones,  two  pair  of  small  mus- 
cles of  very  peculiar  construction  are  especially 
concerned. 

One  pair  of  these,  the  Internal  Oblique  Muscles  of 
the  Eyes,  has  been  already  described  (§  77),  when 
speaking  of  the  snake. 

The  other  pair,  the  Digastrics,  through  which  the 
lungs  are  suspended  by  one  end  of  each  muscle 
from  the  lower  jaw,  and,  by  the  other  end,  from 
the  base  of  the  skull,  are,  we  believe,  found  only  in 
the  higher  animals.  We  shall  describe  them  in  con- 
nection with  the  wind-pipe  (§  114),  the  action  of 
which,  in  the  locomotion  of  the  body,  these  muscles 
may  be  said  to  express. 

§  111.  The  Lungs,  which  may  be  described  as  an 
"  air  sponge,''  but  one  absorbing  from  the  interior 
instead  of  the  exterior  surface,  are  enclosed  in 
cases  which  allow  the  air  to  enter  and  to  leave 
them  by  only  one  and  the  same  opening. 

They  are  made  up  in  man  and  the  higher 
animals,  so  far  as  our  purposes  are  concerned,  of 
four"^  such  inclosed  portions,  two  on  each  side. 

The  chest,  as  can  easily  be  observed,  has  a  coni- 


*  There  are,  in  fact,  five  such  parts,  three  on  the  right  side  and  two 
on  the  left.  This  disposition  may  have  reference  to  the  heart,  which  is 
on  the  left  side. 


113 


cal  shape  without,  and,  within  it,  the  kings  taken 
as  a  whole  form  a  soii;  of  cone,  the  apex  of  which 
is  above,  while  the  base  rests  on  the  diaphragm 
below. 

The  shape  of  the  four  incased  parts,  which  are 
put  together  to  form  the  cone,  may  perhaps  be  best 
given  by  supposing  first,  a  perpendicular  plane 
passed  lengthwise  through  the  spine  and  the  breast 
bone,  this  will  divide  the  lungs  into  right  and  left 
halves.  Then  another  plane,  oblique  from  above 
downwards  its  upper  surface  facing  to  the  front, 
passed  between  the  true  and  the  false  ribs,  will 
divide  the  whole  into  four  pieces,  which  are  called 
"  lobes,''  and  the  general  shape  of  each  of  the  four 
will  be  given  by  the  direction  of  the  planes. 

§  112.  To  each  of  the  two  upper  lobes  of  the 
lungs  appendages  are  added,  at  their  upper  ends, 
which  may  be  called  "tips  ;"^  when  unfilled  these  lie 
somewhat  bent  and  twisted,  at  the  summit  of  each 
lung.  As  we  suppose  every  part  of  the  lung  to 
fill,  not  always  in  the  same  order,  but  according  as 
the  movements  of  the  chest  create  a  vacuum,  these 
tips  would,  on  our  theory,  fll  from  above  doivn- 
ward,  i.    e.,  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  filling 

*  That  these  ''Tips  "  may  have  some  special  action,  is  alluded  to  in 
an  article  in  ''  Townsend's  Cyclopajdia  of  Anatomy." 


114 


of  the  bodies  of  the  upper  lobes  to  wliicli  tliey  are 
attached.  They  take,  we  conceive,  a  double 
twist,  each  for  the  action  of  its  own  line,  and  con- 
stitute the  basis  for  the  connection  of  the  neck- 
action  with  that  of  the  central  spine,  at  the  quasi 
ball  and  socket  joint  of  the  "  neck  root." 

It  will  be  observed  that,  as  the  space  of  the  false 
ribs,  ending  in  a  single  continuation  in  front, 
§  82,  is  more  extended  in  rear  than  in  front,  so  the 
two  loicer  lobes  of  the  lungs  marked  out  by  them  will 
be  very  much  thicker  behind  than  before,  while  the 
tivo  upper  lobes  will  be  somewhat  deeper  in  front 
thmi  in  rear.  The  true  and  false  ribs  and  the  lung 
lobes  thus  seem  to  match  in  shape  as  they  do  in 
motion. 

§  113.  The  lung  lobes  are  filled  with  air  through 
only  one  set  of  tubes ;  but  where  (that  is,  in 
what  part)  they  become  filled  depends  upon  where 
a  vacuum  is  created  in  the  chest,  by  the  motions  of 
the  ribs  and  of  the  diaphragm.  Experiment  will 
— so  we  think — easily  show,  that  m  the  fillings  from 
the  ophidian  movement  the  upper  lung  lobes  fill  from 
the  lower  part  upward ;  the  loiver  lobes  from  the 
upper  part  downward. 

There  are  two  moments  of  filling  for  each  set  of 
lobes,   viz.:  for  the  loiver  lobes ,  when  the  secondary 


115 


sections  of  the  anterior  winding-lines  throw  the 
ribs  on  their  outer  bearings,  and  again,  when  the 
primary  sections  of  the  posterior  Hnes  bring  them 
on  their  inner  bearings  ;  for  the  npper  lobes,  similar 
moments,  with  the  necessary  substitutions  as  to 
sections. 

Both  these  filhngs  will,  for  the  ophidian  action, 
be  as  just  stated,  but  at  the  time  when  each  move- 
ment coalesces  with  the  composite  spine,  the  lung  tips 
(§  112)  will  accompany  the  movement  of  the  quasi 
ball  and  socket  at  the  root  of  the  neck,  so  that 
whenever  a  connection  of  the  lower  C  C  occurs  the 
lung  tips  Jill  at  their  upper  part  from  above ;  and 
whenever  of  the  upper  C  C,  at  their  lower  part,  also 
from  above. 

The  formation  of  the  bicomposite  spine  tends  to 
straighten  the  lung  filings,  destroying  the  counter 
turns,  and  making  the  whole  lung  one ;  entirely  so, 
when  the  "  superimposition  of  curves"  (§  71)  has 
place,  and  approximately  so  in  single  diagonal  for- 
mations. 

There  is  a  certain  action  at  the  lower  edges  of 
the  lungs  (about  the  diaphragm)  analogous  to  that 
at  the  lung  tips,  but  it  seems  unnecessary  to  take 
this  into  account. 


116 


§  114.  The  lobes  of  the  lungs  consist  of  an  infi- 
nite number  of  au'-cells,  Avhich  communicate  with 
the  air  by  a  multitude  of  tubes ;  these  unite  and 
reunite,  until  they  are  reduced  to  one  on  each 
side,  coming  off  about  the  centre  of  the  surfaces  of 
contact  of  the  lobes  of  that  side,  and  these  two 
again  unite  into  one  principal  tube,  the  "  wind- 
pipe." This  sole  conduit  for  air  into  the  lungs  can 
easily  be  felt  as  it  passes  upward  above  the  breast- 
bone. 

§  115.  In  front  of  the  neck  vertebrae  the  wind- 
pipe is  surmounted  at  top  by  a  sort  of  box,  of 
considerable  size,  called  the  "  laeynx,"  prominent 
in  front  as  "  Adam's  apple."  To  this  box  there  is 
but  a  single  small  opening,  through  the  membrane 
which  forms  its  upper  part,  and  this  opening  can, 
at  any  time,  he  dosed  by  a  lid  called  tlie  "  epiglot- 
tis." 

It  is  evident  that  the  amount  of  air  surface 
which  can  come  into  action  against  the  smaU  un- 
der surface  of  this  Hd  is  exceedingly  limited,  com- 
pared with  the  surface  presented  by  the  air  in  the 
lungs,  and  that  thus  the  slender  muscles,  which 
close  the  Hd,  are  quite  competent  to  hold  it  tight 
against  any  escape  of  that  fluid,  even  when  the 
most  violent  compression   of   the   hmgs,  from  the 


117 


action  of  the  ribs,  reduces  the  cavity  of  the  chest 
at  the  spring.  The  epiglottis,  still  refusing  to  allow 
the  escape  of  air,  it  is  condensed,  and  the  equiva- 
lent expansion  assists  in  developing  the  alternate 
shape,  so  soon  as  the  compression  is  removed. 

§  116.  It  is  our  next  object  to  trace  the  succes- 
sion in  filling  or  exhausting  the  different  parts  of 
the  lungs,  as  the  one  or  the  other  accompanies  the 
formation  of  the  winding-lines,  and  their  reaction 
on  each  other  in  the  different  C  C. 

Supposing,  as  usual,  the  left  anterior  point  of 
application  to  commence  the  workings,  and  this 
hy  the  ophidian  S.  The  formation  of  the  right 
•convex  of  the  upper  C,  and  of  the  left  convex  of 
the  lower  C,  by  the  left  anterior  winding-line,  will 
enlarge  the  right  upper  lung  lobe  upward,  and  the 
left  lower  lobe  downward  (§  113). 

The  reflex  action  from  the  secondary  section  of 
the  right  posterior  line  (b'  §  58)  very  particularly 
enlarges  the  left  lower  lung,  as  it  draws  downward 
the  rib  articulations. 

Meantime,  the  air  is  drawn  from  the  left  upper 
and  right  lower  lobes  and  into  the  left  lower  and 
right  upper. 

Next  we  have  the  direct  action  of  the  secondary 
section  of  the  right  posterior  line,  coming  from  the 
6 


118 


trunk  toward  the  articulations  of  the  ribs  (§  58), 
and  meeting  the  already  formed  primary  section 
of  the  left  anterior  line.  This  completes  the  filling 
of  the  right  upper  lobe  for  the  ophidian  spine. 

But  the  actions  of  the  upper  lobes  are  very  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  lower  ones,  by  reason  of 
the  eccentric  movement  of  their  upper  ends,  for  al- 
though there  must  be  some  eccentric  movement  of 
the  lower  lobes,  from  their  being  connected  with 
the  upper  end  of  the  third  S,  yet  this  is  met  by 
the  considerable  extent  of  the  lower  lung  surface 
and  the  elasticity  of  the  lower  ribs.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  upper  points  of  the  upper  lobes  must  re- 
volve with  the  ball  and  socket  motions  at  the  base 
of  the  neck. 

Each  one  of  the  above  ophidian  movements  is 
followed  by  the  action  which  unites  it  with  the 
composite  spine,  and  which  increases  still  more 
the  filling  of  the  lung,  by  rendering  tenser  the  en- 
largement of  the  chest  cavity  at  the  same  time 
that  it  fills  the  lung  tips  (§  112). 

Finally,  the  formation  of  the  bicomposite  spine . 
in  reducing  the  counter  directions  of  the  filling  of 
the  lobes  and  of  the  lung  tips,  expands  the  chest 
still  further. 

The  compressions  of  the  lung  are  caused  hy  the 


119 


development  of  the  new  curve,  and,  of  course,  are 
greatest  at  the  moment  of  discharge,  when  the  shape 
of  the  spine  changes. 

§  117.  In  connection  with  these  movements,  we 
think  one  may  trace  the  relative  workings  of  the 
psoce  muscles  and  the  diaphragm. — of  the  small 
oblique  muscles  at  the  back  of  the  head  and  the 
sterno-raastoids — of  the  muscles  which  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  shoulder  blades,  converge  at  the 
back  of  the  head,  of  the  muscles  tvhich,  from  the 
back,  pass  to  the  arms,  and  of  the  muscular  combina- 
tions which,  acting  between  the  lower  end  of  the 
breast  bone  and  the  collateral  sides  of  the  pelvis, 
straighten  the  tractions  of  this  bone  from  diagonal 
to  collateral. 

In  tracing  the  action  of  the  bony  skeleton,  as 
affected  by  these  muscles,  we  shall  leave  out  of 
mention  the  Latissimus  dorsi,  the  obhque  muscles 
of  the  head,  and  those  connecting  the  shoulder 
blades  and  the  head,  because  we  think  that  their 
workings  may  be  more  clearly  defined  by  tracing 
the  shoulder  blades  as  resting  on  and  following  the 
shape  of  the  chest,  and  that  the  movements  of  the 
head  are  sufficiently  clear  of  themselves. 

§  118.  Taking  a  general  view  of  the  action    of 


120 


the  three  spines* — ophidian,  composite  and  bicom- 
posite  {§  84) — it  will  be  observed,  at  the  head 
ball  and  socket  joint,  that  the  result  of  a  ball  and 
a  socket  action,  fuUy  carried  out,  is  to,  as  it  were, 
throw  off  the  point  of  pressure  and  the  pair  of  coun- 
ter-acting lines  on  which  it  depends  to  the  front,  dis- 
engaging them,  one  from  the  other,  each  to  its  own 
side.  And  if,  as  in  the  curve  of  "  superimposition  " 
(§  71),  there  be  two  pairs  of  counter-acting  lines, 
both  are  thus  thrown  forward  and  disengaged  lat- 
terally.  In  either  case,  if  not  discharged,  they 
will  straighten,  and,  in  the  case  of  one  pair,  this 
position  protracted  will  bring  the  other  pair  into 
action,  and,  suppressing  the  lateral  developments, 
will  produce  double  superimposition  (§  71),  and 
make  the  tractions  collateral  instead  of,  as  before, 
diagonal  (§  71). 

Now,  before  the  whole  course  of  the  lines  for  aU 
the  spines  are  thus  made  collateral,  this  baU  and 
socket  action  occurs  at  four  points  : 

First. — Between  the  upper  and  lower  lung  lobes, 
for  the  ophidian  S. 

Second. — At  the  diaphragm,  for  the  union  between 
the  central  and  third  S. 


*  When  considering  the  bony  spine  only  in  relation  to  its  S  S  S,  we 
have  called  them  First,  Central  and  Third. 


121 


Third. — At  the  digastrics,  for  the  union  between 
the  central  and  neck  S,  covering,  to  some  extent, 
also  the  third  S. 

Fourth. — At  the  head  joint,  for  the  formation  of 
the  bi-composite  spine,  covering  the  whole. 

•The  second  and  third  are  those  by  which  the 
two  ends  of  the  composite  S  are  formed. 

The  fourth  and  first  unite  in  their  action  after 
the  action  of  the  third  and  second,  so  that  the 
central  focus  is  always  between  the  lung  lobes. 

The  action  of  the  digastrics,  in  representing  the 
central  uniting  with  the  neck  S  through  the  neck- 
root  joint,  is  similar  to  that  of  the  diaphragm  in 
uniting  the  central  and  the  third  S,  the  flat  an- 
terior part  of  the  diaphragm  (§  106)  being  the  ana- 
logue of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  digastrics,  the 
diaphragm  pillars  of  the  posterior  portions.  The 
psoae  complete  the  action,  and  join  it  with  the  in- 
ternal obliques  of  the  eyes. 

The  various  S  S  of  the  snake  are  discharged  in 
succession ;  those  of  the  higher  animals  are  col- 
lected together  under  one  S — the  ."  bicomposite  " — 
by  means  of  the  neck  and  then  discharged  together. 

§  119.  The  above  is  the  gathering  movement, 
and  determines  the  action  of  the  legs  of  appui. 
The  free  legs  are  moved  in  the   discharge.    In 


122 


simple  diagonal  locomotion,  such  as  the  trot  of 
the  horse,  the  gathering  of  one  pair  of  lines,  and 
the  discharge  of  the  other  pair,  are  to  some  degree 
synchronous,  and  must  be  described  together. 

We  shall  next  enter  into  a  more  detailed  ex- 
amination of  the  action  of  various  parts. 

§  120.  The  long   tube,   called  ihe  tvindpipe,  is, 

during  locomotion,  the  subject  of  various  twisting 

movements,  coming  from  the  motions  imparted  to 

the  lobes  of  the  lungs  by  the  varying  shapes  of 

the  chest.     These  twistings  are  not  communicated 

to  the  larynx,  or  voice  box,  because  the  windpipe, 

just  below  the  plane  at  which  the  larynx  crowns 

it,  is  held  up  by  two  loops,  one  on  either  side,  and 

these  slip  on  cords  stretched  from  the  back  part 

of  the  under  surface  of  the  skull  behind  the  head 

condyle  joints,  to  the  inside-front  of   the   lower 

jaw,  on  a  line  between  the  two  central  incisor 

teeth.     These  cords,  which  are  each  composed  of 

two  muscular  masses,  joined  together  in  the  centre 

where  the  loops  run  by  a  smooth,  round  tendon, 

have  been  already  mentioned  as  the  Digastrics. 

Being  joined  to  the  skull  behind  the  head  condyles, 

to  the  lungs  by  the  windpipe,  and  to  the  lower 

jaw,  they  obviously  connect  the   motions  of   all 

three. 


123 


§  121.  The  larynx  is  a  box  with  unyielding  sides, 
TDiit  the  loindpipe  is  a  flexible  tube,  formed,  at  its 
front,  by  a  series  of  three-quarter  hoops.  The 
space  between  the  ends  of  these  hoops,  that  is  the 
back  of  the  windpipe,  is  filled  out  by  a  yielding 
membrane.  The  windpipe  thus  somewhat  resem- 
bles the  body  of  a  snake,  if  we  suppose  the  ribs  to 
join  below,  forming  one  piece  mth  the  scutae  (§  44) 
and  the  vertebrse  to  be  removed  above. 

§  122.  It  is  plain,  we  think,  not  only  that  con- 
siderable motions  of  torsion  and  counter-torsion 
must  take  place  in  the  windpipe,  but  also,  that  its 
connections  with  the  lower  jaw,  to  be  given  in  the 
next  section,  show  that  those  twistings  must  exert 
a  powerful  reflex  influence  on  the  motions  of  the 
whole  body.  We  might  also  appeal  to  horsemen, 
who  well  know  how  different  the  effects  of  the 
bit  are  from  those  of  the  cavesson,  a  difference 
which  can  be  explained  only  by  the  fact  that  move- 
ments of  the  lower  jaw  affect  the  lungs,  and 
changes  in  the  lungs  affect  the  trunk.  It  is  when 
the  spur,  acting  on  the  false  ribs  near  the  dia- 
phragm, alters  the  filling  of  the  lungs,  in  counter- 
action to  any  attempt  of  the  lower  jaw  to  stiffen 
itself  into  one  piece  with  the  head,  that  that  perfect 


124 


mastery  over  the   horse's    motions  is    obtained, 
which  is  one  grand  object  in  cavabry  riding. 

§  123.  The  larynx,  windpipe  and  lungs  lie,  as  has 
been  mentioned,  entirely  loose  within  the  chest 
and  neck,  and  are  suspended  by  the  digastrics.  Be- 
fore speaking  further  of  the  lower  jaw  we  will  de- 
scribe more  particularly  the  points  between  which 
the  digastrics  are  stretched.  Just  behind  the  ears 
may  be  felt,  on  each  side,  the  bony  protuberances 
to  which  the  upper  ends  of  the  sterno-mastoids  are 
fixed.  Close  inside  of  each  protuberance  is  the 
attachment  of  a  digastric.  From  these  points  the 
digastrics  go  forward,  converging  toward  each  other,, 
and  having  run  each  through  one  of  the  loops  on 
either  side  of  the  windpipe,  they  meet  together 
and  fix  themselves  inside  of  the  front  part  of 
the  lower  jaw,  on  either  side  of  a  line  passing  down- 
ward from  between  the  two  centre  front  teeth. 
The  mastoid  protuberances,  the  centre  of  the  lower 
jaw,  and  the  top  of  the  windpipe,  are  so  easily  to 
be  traced,  that  after  mentioning  the  fact  that  these 
cords  sag  down  in  the  middle,  where  the  windpipe 
is  suspended,  it  seems  unnecessary  to  dwell  longer 
on  their  description. 

§  124.  Just  in  front  of  each  ear  one  of  the  hinge- 


126 


like,"^  articulations  of  the  lower  jaw  is  easily  recog- 
nized on  opening  or  shutting  it.  The  weight  of 
the  lungs  and  the  contractions  of  the  digastric 
muscles  would  continually  open  it  by  drawing  on 
its  front  part,  were  it  not  for  several  powerful  mus- 
cles on  both  sides  which  easily  keep  it  closed,  so 
long  as  the  windpipe  loops  do  not  come  too  far  for- 
ward. 

On  the  plan  of  describing  only  such  parts  as 
seem  necessary  to  the  explanation  of  oiu*  subject, 
we  may  here  select  the  two  "  Temporal  muscles,'" 
one  on  each  side  of  the  head,  as  representing  the 
forces  which  close  the  lower  jaw,  and  which  thus, 
as  will  be  presently  explained,  complete  the  series 
of  motions  that  give  a  double  twist  to  all  the 
springs  of  the  body. 

For  the  lower  attachments  of  the  temporal  mus- 
cles a  projection  of  bone  rises  from  the  upper  edge 
of  the  lower  jaw  on  either  side,  in  front  of  the 
hinge-like  articulation  with  the  skull,  and,  from 
these  projections,  the  muscles  spreading  out  Hke  a 
fan,  fix  themselves  for  their  upper  attachment  over 
the  surface  of  the  temples  (whence  their  name). 

§  125.     When  the  lower  jaw  is  closed,  each  di- 

*  In  the  lion,  &c.,  they  are  complete  hinges ;  in  man  and  the  horse 
there  is  also  a  lateral  movement. 

6* 


126 


gastric  has  effectually  two  attachments  to  the  head, 
one  in  front  and  one  in  the  rear  of  the  head  con- 
dyles, so  that  it  is  easy  to  see  how  the  movements 
of  the  lungs  and  of  the  head  are  connected  by 
these  muscles  in  harmony  with  the  workings  of 
the 'neck.  It  is  (§  118)  through  their  medium  that 
the  shoulder  and  hind-limhs  are  Itrought  into  connec- 
tion tvith  the  hicomposite  spine. 

We  have  (§  121)  referred  to  some  resemblance 
between  the  rings  of  the  windpipe  and  the  ribs  of 
the  snake  combined  A\dth  its  scutae  (§44),  suppos- 
ing the  vertebrae  to  be  translated  to  some  other 
position.  The  ivindpipe  seems  to  act  in  sufficient 
correspondence  with  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck  to 
admit  of  the  supposition  that  it  is  th£  "  artificiaJ 
ground "  on  ivhich  the  neck  works  in  the  composite 
spine,  as  the  ribs  do  on  the  sternum,  and,  by  the 
connection  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  Hkewise  on 
the  pubis.  The  sternum  is  joined  to  the  head  by 
the  stern o-mastoids,  just  where  the  windpipe  is 
joined  to  the  head  by  the  rear  portions  of  the  di- 
gastrics. This  fact  may  somewhat  corroborate 
their  similarity  of  functions. 

The  digastrics,  when  the  lower  jaw  is  closed,  give 
the  windpipe  an  attachment  to  the  head,  in  front 
of  the  head-condyles,  but  the  tmnk  of  the  body 


127 


has  such  attachment  only  through  the  chest  being 
raised  bj  the  lungs,  and  consequently,  also  only  by 
the  digastrics.  We  should,  therefore,  finally,  con- 
sider the  lower  jaiv  as  the  ariiflciol  ground  of  the 
hi-composite  spine. 

§  126.  To  sum  up  what  has  been  said  in  the  last 
and  several  preceding  sections  we  shall  have — 

For  the  diagonal  actions  the  central,  the  lumbar, 
and  the  neck  S  S  S. 

For  the  ball  and  socket  movements  connecting 
the  diagonal  actions  and  their  lines  of  traction  for- 
ward each  to  its  respective  "  substitute  ground  " 
and  from  these  to  the  real  ground : 

The  centre  of  the  central  S  between  the  lung  lobes 
(connecting  the  two  C  C)  making  the  ophidian 
spine. 

The  diaphragm,  between  the  central  and  lumbar 
S  S,  making  the  lower  half  of  the  composite  spine. 

The  neck-root  joint  between  the  central  and  the 
neck  S  S,  making  the  upper  haK  of  the  composite 
spine,  the  movement  of  which  is  represented  by 
the  digastric  muscles,  between  the  composite  spine 
and  the  head. 

The  head  joint  forms  the  bi-composite  spine,  and 
through  the  shoulder-blades  and  lower  jaw,  so  con- 


128 


nects  the  parts,  that  all  return  again  to  the  move- 
ments between  the  wpper  and  lower  lung  lobes. 

Finally,  the  internal  oblique  muscles  of  the  eye 
throw  off  all  the  gatherings  for  a  renewal  of  the 
actions,  by  the  alternate  movements. 

The  ball  and  socket  movement,  at  the  root  of  the 
neck,  being  at  the  plane  of  the  points  of  application 
for  the  ophidian  movement,  and  between  the  com- 
posite and  bi-composite  spines  when  their  last 
movement  of  union  takes  place,  works  Hke  the 
head  condyles,  partially  with  all  the  ball  and  socket 
actions,  and  ceases  to  do  so  only  when  these  centre 
on  the  plane  between  the  upper  and  lower  lung 
lobes. 

EACH  OF  THE  SPINAL  MOVEMENTS  THUS  PASSES  TO   A 

"  SUBSTITUTE  GROUND  "  to  which  they  transmit  the 
tractions  so  changed  by  their  passage  through  their 
respective  ball  and  socket  joints,  that,  in  the  case 
of  the  synchronous  action  of  all  the  counteracting 
lines,  they  become  collateral  just  before  the  dis- 
charge, and  in  the  alternate  action  by  pairs,  a  like 
collateral  union  has  also  place  at  some  instant 
during  the  step.  These  "  substitute  grounds " 
are — 

Of  the  ophidian  spine,  the  Sternum, 


129 


Of  the  lower  half  of  the  composite  spine,  the^ 
Pubis. 

Of  the  upper  half  of  the  composite  spine,  the 
wpper  part  of  the  Sternum. 

Of  the  composite  spine,  which  includes  partially 
the  neck  (as  it  does  partially  the  shoulders),  the 
Pubis,  Sternum  and  windpipe  (§  125.) 

Of  the  bi-composite  spine,  the  lower  jaw. 

For  the  whole  body,  the  eye  balls. 

§  126.  (a)  The  internal  oblique  muscles  of  the  eye, 
occwpying  the  same  relative  position  as  in  the  snake, 
are,frstqf  all,  and  fundamentally  connected  with  the 
ophidian  spine.  They  accept  the  additional  connec- 
tions as  they  form,  and,  finally,  by  the  rather  extensive 
movement  of  the  digastrics  and  the  neck,  the  head  joint 
being  the  centre,  the  shoulders  and  lower  jaw  are  ad- 
justed with  them,  and  the  bi-composite  spine  is  formed. 
This  is  the  course  for  what  we  consider  the  funda- 
mental action,  viz.,  the  trot;  certain  variation 
taking  place  for  the  other  gaits. 


130 

PAET  IV. 

Locomotion  of  Man  and  of  the  Horse. 

§  127.  Locomotion  in  man  and  in  quadrupeds, 
although  apparently  so  dissimilar,  is  yet,  in  its 
chief  points,  really  so  alike,  that  after  discussing 
the  action  of  the  horse  it  will  need  only  a  few  ad- 
ditions in  order  to  adapt  the  description  to  the 
human  frame.  And  tlie  locomotion  of  the  horse 
being  also  the  nearer  step  in  the  transition  from 
that  of  the  snake,  we  shall  commence  with  it. 

§  128.  The  trot,  for  reasons  which  will  appear 
as  we  proceed,  is  more  fully  based  on  the  ophidian 
action  than  any  of  the  other  paces,  and  will  there- 
fore more  perfectly  fit  on  to  the  discussion  of  the 
various  tractions  given  in  the  preceding  sections. 
On  this  account,  we  select  it  as  the  fundamental 
gait  with  which  we  shall  compare  all  the  others. 

The  trot  not  only  exhibits  the  ophidian  action 
in  the  change  of  bearing  from  the  outer  to  the 
inner  sides  of  the  feet  employed  as  appuis,  (equiva- 
lent to  the  change  of  bearing  on  the  ground  end 
bevels  of  the  snake's  ribs,  but  the  movement  com- 
menced in  the  chest  at  the  ophidian  S  takes,  as  in 
the  snake,  a  nearly  synchronous  spring  from  the 
diagonal  points  d'appui. 


131 


In  this  gait  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  two  diagonal 
feet  being  on  the  ground  and  the  other  two  being 
lifted,  the  fixed  fore-foot  of  one  side  leaves  the 
ground  just  in  time  for  the  collateral  raised  hind- 
foot  to  be  put  down  in  its  place — that  on  the  op- 
posite side  the  two  feet  (a  raised  fore  and  a  fixed 
hind-foot)  separate  widely,  the  one  forward,  the 
other  backward — and  that,  as  we  think  may  be 
recognized  by  the  eye  of  an  observer,  the  pro- 
pelling hind  foot  leaves  the  gi'ound  an  instant  before 
its  diagonal  (the  fixed  fore-foot)  does  so.  This 
result  seems  analogous  with  the  view  we  have 
taken  of  the  order  of  discharge  of  the  two  C  C 
forming  each  S  in  the  snake's  locomotion. 

§  129.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  tiie  air  in  the 
lungs  expands  to  support  every  expansion,  and 
condenses  to  allow  every  contraction  of  the  chest ; 
also  that  these  air  actions  are  of  two  kinds,  07ie 
central  in  the  lobes  proper,  coming  from  the 
ophidian  movement  proper,  the  other  terminal  in 
the  lung  tips,  coming  from  a  working  added  to  that 
of  the  central  S,  in  order  to  accommodate  the 
action  of  the  two  additional  S  S,  i.  e.,  of  idie  loins 
and  of  the  neck,  which  work  with  the  hind  legs  and 
the  fore  legs  (or  arms)  respectively  and  to  serve  as 
a  working  pivot  for  the  union  of  the  ophidian  and 


132 


composite  spines,  as  also  by  a  repetition  and  further 
extension  of  its  movements  for  collecting  all  in  the 
bi-composite  spine. 

The  filling  of  the  lung  tips  (§  112)  takes  place  as 
if  each  lung-tip  were  an  S.  The  upper  part,  or  C, 
fills  from  above  with  an  outward  turning  motion^ 
harmonizing  with  the  outward  turning  of  its  diag- 
onal lower  lung  lobe  as  this  filled,  and,  by  a  fur- 
ther outward  turning,  not  accompanied  by  filling, 
harmonizing  with  that  part  of  the  filling  of  its  at- 
tached upper  lobe  which  requires  an  outward  turn- 
ing. The  lower  part,  or  C,  fills  from  above  with 
an  inward  turning  motion,  harmonizing  with  that 
part  of  the  filling  of  both  the  attached  upper  and 
diagonal  lower  lung  lobes  which  requires  an  in- 
ward turning,  but  especially  with  that  of  the  at- 
tached upper  lobe,  with  which  this  inward  turning 
finally  makes  one  piece  of  the  lobe  and  its  tip. 

It  will  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  filling  of  the 
lung  lobes  is  accomplished  in  two  times — (1.)  By 
the  secondary  section  of  the  anterior  winding-line 
for  the  lower  lobe — of  the  diagonal  posterior  wind- 
ing-line for  the  diagonal  upper  lobe,  causing  an 
outward  turning.  (2.)  By  the  counter-action  of  the 
two  lines  causing  an  inward  turning  throughout 
their  points  of  meeting,  which,  finally,  raises  the 


133 


outermost  point  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  ribs  and 
gives  the  greatest  capacity  to  the  chest. 

The  filling  of  the  upper  C  of  a  lung  tip  is  con- 
nected with  the  formation  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
composite  spine  in  the  anterior  winding-Une.  It. 
thus  accompanies  the  turn  outward  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  collateral  stemo-mastoid  and  of  the 
diagonal  diaphragm  pillar  and  psoas.  The  filling 
of  lower  C  is  connected  with  the  formation  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  composite  spine  in  the  posterior 
line,  and  thus  accompanies  the  turn  inward  of 
those  muscles  from  their  upper  parts. 

§  130.  The  fore-limbs  we  suppose  to  be  guided 
by  the  anterior  part  of  the  trunk,  and  by  the  neck,: 
in  the  following  manner.  The  edge  of  the  shoul- 
der blade,  opposite  to  the  arm  socket,  or  more 
exactly  speaking,  that  perpendicular  to  the  prolon- 
gation of  the  central  axis  of  the  movements  of  the 
anterior  limb*  lies  on  the  posterior  true  ribs,  near 
the  spine,  so  as  to  be  guided  by  the  propellers  of 
their  convex  (§  62),  and  thus  follows  their  move- 
ments. 

*  This  would  not  include  the  "whole  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  shoul- 
der blade,  some  portion  being  under  the  guidance  of  the  neck.  Refer- 
ring to  the  beat  engravings  to  which  we  have  access,  there  is  a  diflfer- 
ence  in  the  proportion  of  the  shoulder  blade,  which  might  be  supposed 
to  be  guided  by  these  ribs ;  the  part  under  the  influence  of  the  neck  be- 
ing much  larger  in  the  lion  than  in  the  horse  and  giraffe. 


134 


That  end  of  the  shoulder  blade  lohich  carries  the 
shoulder  joint  socket  lies  on  the  anterior  ground  end 
of  the  true  ribs,  and  is  guided  by  the  moyements 
of  this  part,  which  amounts  tofolloiving  the  move- 
ments of  the  front  part  of  bearers  of  the  convex 
•{§  62)  and  the  upper  end  of  the  sternum.^ 

The  upper  end  of  the  sternum  moves  with  the 
stemo-mastoids,  and  they,  finally,  move  with  the 
neck  S. 

At  the  formation  of  the  left  anterior  winding- 
line,  in  both  its  sections,  the  propeller  true  ribs  (on 
the  rear  portion  of  the  convex)  would  so  move  the 
right  shoulder  blade  that  the  right  fore-foot  will 
rest  on  its  outer  bearing ;  the  estabhshment  of  the 
primary  section  will  so  alter  the  shape  of  the  ribs 
as  to  bring  the  shoulder  socket  more  against  the 
bearers.  The  upper  end  of  the  sternum  is  carried 
somewhat  toward  the  left. 

At  the  formation  of  the  right  posterior  Hue  the 
upper  end  of  the  sternum  is  carried  toward  the  left, 
at  least  relatively,  by  the  movement  of  its  posterior 
end  to  the  right,  as  the  left  hind  foot  comes  on  to 
its  inner  bearing.  This  movement  of  the  sternum 
brings  the  right  fore-leg  on  its  inner  bearing  by  the 
movement  of  its  shoulder  socket. 

*  The  clavicle  which  exists  in  some  animals  would  compel  this. 


135 


From  this  position  the  spring  takes  place,  and 
the  fore-foot,  when  lifted,  continues  presenting  its 
inner  bearing,  not  only  because  of  the  position  in 
which  it  left  the  ground,  but  from  its  being  pres- 
ently again  governed  by  the  upper  edge  of  its 
shoulder  blade,  which,  on  the  change  of  curvature, 
lies  at  the  rear  of  a  concave  of  the  true  ribs.  Thus  it 
remains  until  the  formation  of  the  alternate  winding- 
Kne  which  has  discharged  the  old  curvatures  in  the 
ophidian  and  composite  S  S,  extends  to  the  neck 
S,  brings  the  (now  free)  right  fore-leg  in  connec- 
tion with  the  new  posterior  convex  of  the  neck  and 
causes  it  to  present  for  the  outer  bearing. 

Thus  ice  sliould  have  in  the  trot  for  a  fore-foot^ 
ichiJe  in  cqjjnii,  the  outer  hearing  from  the  upper  edge 
of  the  shoulder  blade,  while  the  anterior  line  of  its 
formation  is  in  action.  The  inner  hearing  from  the 
socket^  while  the  posterior  line  of  its  formation  is  in 
action. 

But  a  raised  forefoot,  having  the  posterior  edge 
of  its  shoulder-blade  on  the  rear  of  the  new  con- 
cave of  the  anterior  C  of  the  ophidian  S  remains, 
presenting  for  the  inner  hearing  until  the  imcK  form- 
ation of  the  neiv  anterior  line  puts  it  on  the  outer 
hearing,  by  connecting  its  socket  with  the  posterior 
part  of  the  rear  C  of  the  neck  S. 


136 


§  131.  Although  the  ophidian,  composite,  and 
bi-composite  spines  begin  the  development  of  the 
winding  lines,  separately,  yet,  once  begun,  each 
continues  its  development  throughout ;  that  is, 
until  the  anterior  winding  line,  beginning  in  the 
ophidian  S,  has  formed  its  bi-composite  portion, 
the  ophidian  action  constantly  increases  along 
with  the  others,  and  so  also  for  the  posterior  wind- 
ing line.  Thus,  the  final  action  still  centres  be- 
tween the  upper  and  lower  lung  lobes  (§  99). 

§  132.  It  wiU  be  remembered  (§§  32,  33,  34)  that 
to  bring  both  C  C  of  any  S  into  a  discharge  for- 
ward, the  cross-line  must  be  displaced,  and  the  pos- 
terior C  rests,  for  its  point  of  reaction,  against  the 
plane  in  which  the  anterior  point  of  apphcation 
moves.  For  this  reason  the  ophidian  posterior  C 
thus  rests  against  the  neck-root  plane  ;  the  poster- 
ior C  of  the  rear  half  of  the  composite  spine  (its 
junction  with  the  central  S  being  formed)  rests 
against  the  same  point.  The  final  point  of  reaction 
will  be  at  the  base  of  head,  to  which  the  points  of 
all  the  spines  will  be  transferred. 

These  posterior  C  C,  their  appuis  (the  hind-leg, 
&c.)  being  fixed,  thrust  their  points  of  reaction  for- 
ward, and  (though  the  anterior  C  C  discharge,  so 


137 


far  as  tlie  spring  is  concerned,  before  them)  their 
appui,  the  hind-leg,  jprecedes  in  leaving  the  ground, 
the  appui  of  the  anterior  C  C,  the  diagonal  fore-leg,"^ 
the  latter  being  in  great  part  used  only  as  a  rest 
while  collecting  the  spring  and  in  Hfting  the  anter- 
ior part  of  the  body.  It  is  discharged  only  when 
the  whole  composite  S  springs  from  the  ground. 

The  posterior  winding  line  prepares  the  dis- 
charge of  both  C  C  on  the  already  formed  anterior 
line,  but  its  working  is  not  completed  until  the 
posterior  "point  of  appUcation  "  has  brought  the 
posterior  end  of  the  cross-line  to  its  own  side,  as 
the  anterior  point  of  appHcation  has  already 
brought  the  anterior  end.  This  cannot  be  done 
until  the  anterior  end,  which  holds  it  in  check 
(§  32)  is  completely  hberated,  consequently  not 
until  after  the  liberation  of  the  spring  from  the 
hind-foot,  where  the  direct  drawing  of  the  posterior 
point  of  application  on  the  posterior  cross-line  end 
completes— first,  the  change  of  curvature  in  the  anterior 
C,  lifting  up  tJw  fore  foot,  and  then,  completing  the 
change  of  curvature  in  the  posterior  C,  puts  down  the 

*  In  our  usual  illustration,  the  parts  would  be  the  left  anterior  and 
right  posterior  points  of  application,  the  left  hind  and  right  lore  legs, 
and  the  cross-line  would  be,  at  first,  drawn  completely  over  to  the  left 
side,  the  anterior  end  being  drawn,  and  the  posterior  end  held  in  check 
there  by  the  left  anterior  winding  line. 


138 


collateral  hind-foot  ivliich  is  to  form  the  neiv  rear 
appui.^ 

§  133.  The  ball  and  socket  movement  of  the 
digastrics,  and  of  the  internal  oblique  muscles  of 
the  eyes,  we  should  describe  on  the  principle  that 
a  rolling  outward  of  the  muscle,  beginning  at  its 
anterior  part,  represents  the  ball  motion — a  turning 
inward,  commencing  in  the  rear  portion,  the  reci- 
procal socket  motion  (§  39).  The  eyes  remain 
steady  in  the  central  line  of  advance  while,  with 
movements  similar  to  those  of  its  diagonal  eye 
muscle,  each  digastrics  brings  the  composite  spine 
into  connection  with  the  central  movement.  The 
eyes  thus  belong  fundamentally  to  the  ophidian 
(or  snake)  spine. 

The  part  of  both  digastric  and  eye  muscles  an- 
terior to  the  loop  rolls  outward  with  the  secondary 
section  of  the  anterior  winding  line,  the  part  pos- 
terior to  the  loop  with  its  primary  section — then,  to 
form  the  double  twist,  the  rear  portion  rolls  in- 
wards with  the  primary  section  of  the  posterior 
winding  line,  the  front  portion  inward  with  the 
secondary  section.  These  correspondences  take  place 
for  the  eye  muscle  during  the  ophidian  spine  action — 

*  The  newly  grounded  hind-foot  should,  in  perfect  action,  come  into 
the  print  of  the  fore-foot  which  gives  place  to  it,  unless  the  spring  has 
carried  all  four  feet  forward. 


139 


for  the  digastric  during  the  formation  of  the  compo- 
site spine. 

As  the  left  anterior  winding  line  enters  the  "  bi- 
composite  spine"  formation,  the  revolution  out- 
ward of  the  left  digastric  is  completed,  and  its  loop 
goes  to  the  extreme  rear  hmit  of  its  rear  movement. 

At  the  formation  of  the  composite  spine,  in  the 
right  posterior  winding  line,  the  action  of  the  right 
digastric,  turning  outward  from  above,  beginning- 
with  its  posterior  end,  which  really  represents  the 
socket  movement,  becomes  transformed,  (§  39)  as 
to  effect,  into  the  left  digastric-turning  inward^ 
beginning  at  the  rear. 

§  134.  The  movement  of  the  left  hindfoot  in 
appui,  following  the  left  lower  lung  lobe,  corres- 
sponds  with  the  movement  of  the  left  (its  collateral) 
digastric,  so  long  as  the  composite  spine  is  form-- 
ing.  But,  so  soon  as  the  bi-composite  spine  forms 
and  the  right  fore-leg  comes  into  correspondence 
with  the  left  (its  diagonal)  digastric,  this  leg  sub- 
stitutes itself  for  the  digastric  in  the  connection  tvith 
the  left  hind  if  the  movement  penetrates  the  neck 
root  joint.* 


*  There  are  some  movements,  notably,  the  walk,  in  which  it  seems 
to  us,  that  the  neck  root  joint  shirks  more  or  less  of  its  full  actions. 
<See  §  146), 


140 


Thus  the  right  eye,  tlie  left  digastric  and  the  right 
Jore  leg  are  brought  into  one  direction,  first  by  the  an- 
terior ivinding  line,  then  by  the  posterior. 

§  135.  The  sternum,  which  is  influenced  by  both 
formations,  turns — with  that  of  the  left  anterior 
winding  line  at  its  upper  left  corner  when  forming 
the  bi-composite  spine,  so  that  the  left  sterno 
mastoid  revolves  outward  in  its  lower  portion,  and 
allows  the  "  displacement "  of  what  would  be  the 
left  anterior'  cross-line  and  of  the  neck  S — at  about 
one-third  its  length  from  the  head.  With  that  of 
the  right  posterior  line  the  right  side  of  the  loiver 
and  of  the  sterno  (since  it  represents  the  separating 
head-joint  socket)  is  turned  outward,  but  the  ten- 
sion comes  on  the  left  side  turning  inward  as  the 
pressure  from  the  right  socket  movement  came  on 
to  the  left. 

These  movements  of  the  sternum,  in  which  its  left 
lower  end  may  be  considered  as  representing  the 
posterior  end  of  the  cross-line,  and  its  right  upper 
corner  the  anterior  end,  give  a  full  collateral  traction 
just  as  the  full  gathering  takes  place. 

In  consequence  of  the  delay  in  the/w??  discharge 

•of  the  posterior  C  (§  132),  the  free  (right)  hind-leg 

does  not  come  into  connection  with  the  right  digastric, 

Jor  its  future  appui,   until  the  alternate   anterior 


141 


winding  line  is  fully  developed,  whereas  the  free 
left  fore-leg,  moving  with  the  neck,  is  in  connection 
with  it  from  the  first  formation. 

We  have  dwelt  on  these  points  so  long,  because, 
although  they  may  seem  slight,  they  are  of  great 
importance  in  "  setting  up "  where  the  removal  of 
each  chronic  displacement  adds  to  the  effect  as 
the  point  approaches  the  final  centre  in  a  continu- 
ally increasing  ratio.  In  developing  the  action  of 
the  bit  in  the  horse's  mouth,  the  connections  of  the 
digastrics  are  also  of  fundamental  importance. 

§  136.  For  tJie  Composite  Spi^^e  ive  may  trace  the 
anterior  luinding  line ~- for  iristance,  the  left  one  —  as 
beginning  at  the  spine  on  the  left  side  of  the  neck-root, 
passing  around  the  body  on  the  right  side,  so  as  to 
cross  it  in  rear  of  the  upper  lumbar  vertebra,  and  fin- 
ishing in  rear  of  the  left  (collateral)  hijJ-socJcet. 

The  right  posterior  ivinding  line,  as  begimiing  at 
the  right  hip-socket  in  front,  passing  to  the  loicer  end 
of  the  sternum,  thence  around  the  left  side  of  the  body, 
and  under  the  right  (collateral)  shoulder-blade. 

§  137.  For  the  Bi-composite  Spine,  with  the  Itead- 
Joint  as  the  seat  of  the  "points  of  apphcation,"  the 
condyles  {ivorking  down  into  the  lungs)  representing 
the  "anterior  points,""  the  sockets  the  "posterior,''  the 


142 


shoulder  joints  combine  the  character  of  both  sets  of 
limbs,  and  the  lower  jaw  is  the  substitute  ground. 

§  138.  The  eyes,  if  we  trace  the  optic  nerves 
(which  we  have  attempted  to  do  further  on),  may 
be  considered  to  combine  both  rear  and  front  appuis' 
as  the  foot  ends  of  the  ivhole  system,  first  for  the 
ophidian  spine,  and  successively  for  all  the  others,, 
as  they  form.  For  the  trot  they  first  assume  their 
relation  to  the  ophidian  spine,  and  then,  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  neck,  the  bi-composite  relation  is  superadded.. 
For  a  variation  from  this  gait  the  lower  jaw,  head- 
joint,  and  shoulders,  may  first  act,  and  then  on  the 
eyes  the  composite  spine  may  be  brought  in. 

§  138.  The  pelvis  and  the  shoulder-blades  act 
with  both  C  C.  The  third  S  is  so  rigid  in  its  com- 
position that  it  is  difficult  to  separate  the  movements 
of  its  C  G,  except  by  their  effects.  At  the  formation 
of  the  bi-composite  spine  the  lohole  third  S  is  merged 
in  the  rear  G  of  the  ophidian,  as  is  tJie  ivhole  neck  S 
in  its  anterior  G,  bringing  the  cross-line  centre  of  this 
spine  betiveeii  the  lung  lobes. 

§  139.  The  lower  jaw  is  the  ground  of  junction 
between  the  composite  and  bi-composite  spines,  and 
on  it  the  re-actions  from  the  real  ground,  as  well  as 
from  all  the  substitute  grounds  (§§  81,  82,  125) 
come  in  bearing.     These  are  essentially  collateral. 


143 


In  the  same  way,  the  shoulders  receive  all  the 
diagonal  actions. 

In  giving  the  details  of  the  trot,  which  we  are 
about  to  do,  we  have  followed  out  each  section  of 
the  winding  lines  as  if  it  were  developed  in  each  of 
the  spines  —  ophidian,  composite,  and  bi-compo- 
site — in  succession,  before  the  succeeding  section 
began  in  the  ophidian  spine.  This  has  been  done 
to  avoid  the  confusion  from  intermixing  them ; 
but  it  is  obvious  that  the  ball  and  socket  motion  of 
the  neck  cannot  succeed  the  anterior  line  of  the 
ophidian  spine  smoothly  until  the  primary  section 
of  the  latter  is  partially  formed,  since  this  latter 
moves  the  neck-root  joint.  Hence,  the  ophidian 
and  composite  S  S  of  the  trot  are  always  in  ad- 
vance of  the  neck  S  —  that  is  to  say,  both  their 
secondary  and  primary  windmg-line  sections  are 
in  formation  before  the  secondary  of  the  neck 
begins. 

§  140.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  we  shall  con- 
sider THE  TROT  as  formed  by  commencing  icith  the 
ophidian  S,  and  through  the  continuance  of  the 
action  of  this  S  developing  the  other  S  S,  and,  fi- 
nally, the  bi-composite  spine ;  the  pace  as  com- 
mencing tvith  the  neck  S,  which,  by  its  develop- 
ment, causes  the  formation, — first,  of  the  third  S, 


144 


tlirougli  the  sternum,  and  then  of  the  ophidian ; 
THE  WALK,  as  commencing  ivith  the  ophidian,  hut 
not  extending  regularly,  the  neck-root  working 
being  only  partially  performed  ;  in  fact,  as  being  a 
trot  with  the  hind-legs  and  a  pace  with  the  fore. 

As  to  the  gaits  of  double  action  we  shall  con- 
sider tJie  SQUARE  JUMP,  which  may  form  a  species  of 
gallop,  to  be  a  double  trot ;  the  "  full  run  "  to  be 
a  double  pace  ;  the  canter  to  be  a  mixture  of  the 
trot  and  pace,  which  is  finished  in  each  spring  by 
double  action. 

DETAILS   OF  THE   TROT. 

§  141.  Let  us,  as  usual,  suppose  the  left  anterior 
winding-line  to  be  the  leading  one,  we  will  mark 
the  developments  by  the  following  symbols  : 
A  for  the  original  anterior  windmg-line. 
"        posterior  " 

alternate  anterior  " 

secondary  section  of  the  anterior  line, 
primary  "  "  "  " 

secondary       "  "       posterior  " 

primary  "  "  "  " 

a'  and  b'  for  the  ophidian    spine, 
a^     "   b'     "     "    composite      " 
a'^     "    b^     "     "    bi-composite " 


B 

A' 

a 

a' 

b 

b' 

145 


§  142.  A  a^  Formation  of  the  secondary  sec-^ 
tion  of  tlie  anterior  winding-line  in  the  ophidian 
spine.  The  "  point  of  apphcation "  being  on  a 
cross-plane  section,  somewhere  at  the  root  of  the 
neck,  the  ophidian  left  anterior  Avinding-line  de- 
velops from  it.  This  development  causes  the  left 
false  and  right  true  ribs  to  form  on  convexes  of 
the  spine,  which  work  against  the  sternum,  and  at 
the  same  time  expand  the  left  posterior,  and,  al- 
though less  fully,  the  right  anterior  lung  lobes,  at 
the  expense  of  then-  reciprocals,  the  collateral  left 
anterior  and  right  posterior  lobes."^  The  con- 
sequent changes  in  the  centre  of  gravity  bring  the 
left  hind-foot  and,  in  a  less  degree,  the  right  fore- 
foot on  their  outward  bearings,  giving  them  also  a 
greater  share  of  the  weight  of  the  body,  and  by  so 
much,  relieving  the  right  hind  and  left  fore-feet. 
"With  the  movement  of  the  false  ribs  the  left  side 
of  the  diaphragm  is  stretched. 

The  left  fore-foot  is  turned  in  by  the  commence- 
ment of  an  inward  facing  of  its  socket  (§  130),  fol- 
lowing through   the  upper  part  ^of  the  shoulder- 

*  The  anterior  portion  of  the  ej^e  muscle  rolls  oatwarl  with  ih.Q  fill- 
ing of  its  diagonal  posterior  lobe,  anfl  inward  with  the  exhausting  of  its 
collateral  posterior  lobe.  Hence,  since  it  cannot  roll  two  ways  at  once, 
the  two  posterior  lobes  cannot  hi  reciprocals  as  to  filling  and  exhaust- 
ing. 


146 


blade  the  shape  of  the  rear  true  ribs  of  its  side. 
The  right  Jiind-foot  is  turned  in  by  the  facing  of  its 
socket. 

The  right  eye  becomes  the  centre  of  direction, 
the  muscular  portion  in  front  of  the  loop  rolling 
outward,  and  thus  the  ophidian  spine  preserves,  in 
the  eye,  its  relation  to  the  snake's  motion. 

a  '^  Formation  of  the  primary  section — Upper 
end  of  sternum  carried  somewhat  to  left,  brings 
bearing  of  right  shoulder  blade  on  the  ribs,  nearer 
to  its  socket  part — Displaces  ophidian  cross  line  to 
left — Eear  portion  of  right  eye  muscle  rolls  out- 
ward, loop  slipping  to  its  rear  limit — Enlarges  right 
upper  lung  lobe. 

a^  This  movement  combines  the  third  S  with 
the  ophidian  spine,  and  thus  forms  the  rear  portion 
of  the  composite  spine  for  the  anterior  winding- 
line.  As  the  internal  relations  of  the  composite 
spine  belong  to  the  ophidian  S,  and  the  external  to 
the  neck  S,  the  anterior  "point  of  application"  for  a^ 
a  ''^  must  vary  between  the  "  point  in  a  cross  plane" 
spoken  of  under  a  ^  and  the  head  condyles — Turns 
the  left  hind-foot  still  more  on  its  outer  bearing — 
Fills  the  rear  C  of  the  right  lung  tip  (in  filling 
this,  revolves  to  the  left  and  backward)— Tightens 
connection  between  left  side  of  pubis  and  left  side 


147 


of  posterior  end  of  sternum,  in  the  outward  bear- 
ing, in  consequence  of  the  turning  of  the  lower  of 
the  third  S.  Turns  the  upper  part  of  left  diaph- 
ragm pillar  outward,  and  still  further  expands  the 
left  lower  lung  lobe. 

a'2  Formation  of  anterior  part  of  composite 
spine  in  anterior  winding  line — Rolls  left  anterior 
comer  of  sternum  outward  and  backward,  and  causes 
lower  part  of  left  stemo-mastoid  muscle  to  roll 
in  same  direction — completes  outer  turning  of  left 
diaphragm-pillar,  and  begins  that  of  left  psoas.  The 
turning  of  the  left  upper  corner  of  the  sternum 
causes  a  partial  movement  in  the  neck  root  joint,  in 
its  character  of  a  ball  and  socket — Right  fore-leg 
shoulder  socket  brought  close  to  ribs. 

a^.  Continued  revolution  of  left  anterior  ophi- 
dian point  of  appHcation  further  moves  neck  root 
joint,  so  that  left  head  condyle  turns  inward  by  the 
rear  on  its  posterior  end.  The  left  digastric  rolls 
outward  in  its  anterior  portion,  the  loop  slipping 
backward.  The  left  (tree) fore-foot  turns  outward.^ 
The  left  psoas  completes  its  outward  turn,  thus 
forming  the  rear  portion  of  theM-composite  spine  in 
the  anterior  line. 


*When  the  trot  is  fully  inaugurated,  the  anterior  line  which  we  are 
■now  describing,  is  the  alternate  line  in  relation  to  the  previous  spring. 


148 


a'^.  Continued  action  of  the  ophidian  line  works 
still  fnrtlier  on  neck  root  joint;  the  left  head  con- 
dyle, in  consequence,  rotates  forward,  so  as  to  pass 
its  inteiior  side  against  the  interior  side  of  its  sock- 
et, resisting  the  movement  toward  the  left  coming 
from  the  right  fore-leg,  and  carrying  its  own  point 
of  pressure  forward ;  thus  corresponding  to  a* 
§  37.  The  rear  portion  of  the  left  digastric  rolls 
outward,  the  loop  moving  to  its  utmost  rear  limit. 
The  left  fore-foot  is  carried  forw^ard. 

The  movements  a'  a'^  of  the  left  head  con- 
dyle are  made  on  the  rear  C  of  the  right  lung  tip, 
and  the  hicomposite  spine  for  the  "  anterior  line  "  is 
completed  in  the  formation  of  its  front  part  by  (in. 
this  case  left)  side  of  the  lower  jaw  setting,  in  its 
socket,  so  as  to  rest  on  the  inner  part  of  its  con- 
dyle. This  bearing,  and  that  on  the  outer  side,  are, 
respectively,  analogically  the  same  as  the  outer  and 
inner  bearing  of  the  ribs  and  feet ;  we  shall,  there- 
fore, name  them  the  analogical  outer  and  inner 
bearings  of  the  lower  jaw. 

§  143.  B.  It  is  a  little  difficult  to  describe 
the  action  of  the  posterior  windmg-line  as  it 
covers  the  precedently  established  diagonal  an- 
terior line.  Its  secondary  section  working  in  the 
anterior  C,  is  there  opposed  by  the  primary  sec- 


149 


tion  of  tlie  anterior  Hue  liolding  tlie  cross  line 
displaced,  aud  tlie  first  effects  are,  on  this  account, 
not  those  of  a  working  in  this  C,  but  hy  re-action 
of  a  working  in  the  posterior  C.  Here,  beginning 
at  the  rear  end,  it  double  twists  the  propeller  false 
ribs,  bringing  them  on  their  iuner  beariag. 

With  the  estabhshment  of  its  primary  section 
the  posterior  wiuding-hne  would  move  the  poste- 
rior cross-line  end,  but  this  is  held  fast,  displaced 
to  the  left,  untn  the  anterior  line  is  discharged  ia 
its  primary  section  by  the  action  of  the  primary 
section  of  the  "  alternate  line,"  when  it  displaces 
its  appropriate  end  of  the  alternate  cross-Hne. 

In  consequence  of  this  delay  the  propeller  true 
ribs  are,  next  after  the  double  twisting  of  the  pro- 
peller false  ribs,  brought  on  to  their  inner  bear- 
ings, and  even  the  bearer  true  and  false  ribs  are 
brought  on  to  then*  outer  bearuigs  (§  53)  while 
the  displacement  is  still  maintaiued. 

At  the  discharge,  which  begins  with  the  forma- 
tion of  the  secondary  section  of  the  "  alternate  an- 
terior -^dnding-line,"  the  original  posterior  C  is 
discharged,  ^'^V^:/a/7^,  but  it  is  ^only  when  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  piimary  section  of  this  "  alter- 
nate line  "  takes  place,  and  discharges  the  original 
anterior  C,  releasing  the  original  anterior  cross- 
7^ 


150 


line  end  as  it  draws  that  end  of  the  alternate 
cross  line  toward  the  right,  and  releasing  also  the 
original  posterior  cross-line  end  from  its  con- 
strained position  to  the  left,  that  this  virtual  dis- 
charge is  carried  out  and  the  alternate  false  rib 
propellers  are  grounded. 

The  analogy  of  the  snake's  action  holding  good 
for  the  three  spines  and  their  appuis,  the  right 
hind-foot  will  be  set  down  when  A'  a'^  has  re- 
leased the  cross-line  end  of  the  comj^osite  spine 
at  the  jimctnre  of  the  lumbar  and  ophidian  ver- 
tebrae. 

As  has  been  so  fi'equently  said  (§  39,  etc.),  all 
the  actions  of  the  posterior  lines  are  "  replace- 
ment" movements  in  the  side  of  the  C  which  they 
affect.  Thus  the  inward  rolling  of  the  left  digas- 
tric is  really  consequent  on  an  inoperative  outward 
rolling  of  the  right  digastric,  in  the  same  way  as 
the  pressure  of  the  left  head  socket  comes  from 
the  drawing  away  of  the  right  one. 

b^  Posterior  right  winding-line.  Effects  in  ^^os- 
terior  C  of  the  re-action  from  its  secondary  section 
as  checked  in  anterior  C,  brings  the  left  propel- 
ler false  ribs  on  to  their  inner  beariags,  beginning 
at  the  rear,  and  produces  an  effect  in  the  further 
stretching   of  the   left  side  of  the  diaphragm  by 


151 


""  counter-action  "  in  its  fibres.  Begins  a  rolling 
motion  of  the  right  eye  muscle  in-^varcl,  in  its  rear 
portion  corresponding  with  the  motions,  from  re- 
action in  the  rear  C  of  the  spine.  Produces  some 
inward  bearing  of  the  left  hind-foot  from  the 
change  of  centre  of  gravity. 

b'.  Direct  action  in  secondary  section.  Bight 
true  rib  projDcllers  come  on  inner  bearing,  and 
bearers  on  outer  bearing.  Bight  eye  muscle  rolls 
inward,  by  its  anterior  part,  loop  still  not  moving. 

b^.  Be-actionary  formation  of  rear  half  of  com- 
posite spine  for  the  posterior  winding-line.  Brings 
the  left  hind-ioot  on  to  its  iniier  bearing.  Bolls 
the  left  pillar  of  the  diaphragm  inward  by  its  lower 
part.  Turns  (by  change  of  socket  facing)  the 
right  (free)  hind-foot  for  outer  bearing. 

b'^.  Direct  formation  of  anterior  part  of  the  com- 
posite spine,  for  right  posterior  winding  Hue, 
secondary  section.  Lower  C  of  right  lung  tip  fills, 
rolling  inward.  Bight  fore-foot  comes  on  inner 
bearing  by  movement  of  socket  from  continued  pass- 
age of  the  upper  end  of  sternum  to  the  left.  Turns 
the  posterior  end  of  sternum,  left  side,  inwards  by 
the  front,  so  far  as  the  displaced  position  of  the 
cross-line  end  will  allow  it. 

Partial  movement  in   neck-root  joiut   crossing 


152 


that  of  a^  Left  diaphragm  pillar  rolls  inward  at 
its  upper  part.  Left  psoas  rolls  in  by  its  lower 
part. 

b'^.  Reactionary  neck  S.  Since  the  action,  is 
spreading  upwards  fi-om  the  neck-root  joint,  the 
movement  of  the  digastric  will  somewhat  precede 
that  of  the  head  socket.  Left  digastric  rolls  inward,, 
beginning  with  its  anterior  part,  but  loop  does 
not  move.  Left  head  socket  rotates  forward  so  as 
to  pass  its  exterior  side  against  the  exterior  side  of 
the  condyle,  still  resisting  the  general  pressure  to 
the  left,  which  is  now  exerted  through  the  condyle. 

Action  through  the  sternum  forms  rear  part  of  hi- 
composite  spine  for  the  posterior  winding  line  connec- 
ting left  (fixed)  hind-leg  with  the  left  digastric,  and 
by  the  diagonal  part  of  its  traction  bringing  the 
right  (free)  hind-leg  forward.  The  left  psoas  roll& 
inward  by  its  upper  part  to  form  in  the  bi-compo- 
site  spine. 

b^  Direct  pressures  and  counter-pressures  gather 
at  the  anterior  point  of  the  left  head-joint  socket. 
Left  digastric  rolls  inward  by  its  posterior  por- 
tion. Left  side  of  lower  jaw  comes  as  firmly  on  to 
its  "analogical  inner"  bearing  (§  142)  as  it  can, 
until  the  formation  of  b'". 

Movement  on  lower  C  of  right  lung  tip  finishing 


153 


tlie  motion  of  tlie  neck-root  joint  completes  hi-corn- 
posiie  spine  anteriorly  for  the  right  posterior  winding 
line,  excepting  the  formation  throughout  of  h',  h'^y 
b'^,  its  primary  sections,  which  await  the  release  of 
the  posterior  cross-line  end  from  its  position  to  the 
left,  on  the  formation  of  the  alternate  anterior  line. 

Right  anterior  lung  lobe  and  lung  tip  straighten 
into  one.  The  sternal  action  would  connect  the 
right  fore-leg  mth  the  right  digastric,  but  for  the 
same  reason  (§  39)  that  the  action  of  the  right  head- 
socket  only  gives  pressure  on  the  left;  this  only 
causes  accumulated  action  in  the  left  digastric. 

DiscHAEGE.  Sy  the  formation  of  the  right  (al- 
ternate) anterior  line. 

A'  a^  a'*.  Gives  final  discharge  to  the  ophidian 
S  so  soon  as  a'*  draws  the  anterior  end  of  the  alter- 
nate ophidian  cross-Hne  to  the  right,  thus  releasing 
the  end  of  the  old  line. 

A'  a'2,  moving  the  anterior  end  of  the  alternate 
composite  spine  cross-line,  after  fully  discharging 
the  left  hind-foot  by  releasing  the  "reactionary," 
and  the  right  fore-foot  by  releasing  the  "direct" 
action  of  the  secondary  section  of  the  old  posterior 
line,  sets  down  the  free  right  hind-foot  by  the  re~ 
lease  of  the  old  posterior  cross-line  end  of  the  com- 
posite spine.     A'  a'^  Hkewise  frees  the  left  digas- 


154 


trie  loop  after  allowing  the  now,  for  the  first  time, 
possible  action  of  b'  b"  of  the  old  line.  This  loop 
passes  instantly  forward  to  its  utmost  front  limit, 
and  at  the  same  time  allows  the  left  jaw  to  set 
firmly  on  its  "analogical  inner  bearing"  (§  142)^ 
given  up  to  the  drawing  of  its  temporal  muscle. 

The  new  appuis  being  now  set  do-wn  on  the  out- 
ward bearing,  and  the  old  ones  bemg  raised  as  they 
left  the  ground  with  the  imier  bearing  presented. — 
A'  a^  and  a'^  form,  in  some  horses,  with  great 
rapidity,  and  perhaps  a^  before  reaching  the  ground, 
but  in  others  with  a  slight  delay,  t  These  turn  the 
now  raised  (here  right)  fore-foot  for  its  outer  bear- 
ing and  bring  it  forward  ;  then,  when  B'  is  formed, 
the  left  (now  free)  hind-foot  is  turned  out  by  B' 
b'^  and  b^  is  brought  forward  by  B'  b'^  and  b^,  and 
so  on. 

Whether,  in  the  landing,  the  new  hind  or  the 
new  fore-foot  reaches  the  ground  first,  depends  on 
the  degree  of  gathering  (§  64.) 

§  144.    The  Pace.    We  include  under  this  name 


*  We  suppose  the  sudden  pull  on  vhe  reiu  collateral  with  the  propel- 
ling hind-foot,  at  the  moment  of  the  thrust,  to  be  owing  to  this  sudden 
setting  of  the  lower  jaw.  It  is  well  known  that  drawing  this  rein  just 
as  the  foot  has  left  the  ground,  most  powerfully  checks  progression. 

t  Where  this  delay  is  very  marked,  the  lifted  fore-foot  not  being 
presented  for  its  outer  bearing,  retains  the  inner,  w^hich  is  called 
**  dishing." 


155 


all  those  methods  of  locomotion  in  which  quadru- 
peds use  tico  legs  of  the  same  side  as  appuis  for 
a  step. 

In  the  trot,  the  movement  was  begun  with  the 
ophidian  S  acting  with  the  eye  diagonal  to  the 
rear  appui,  and,  extending  to  the  third  8,  and 
finally  to  the  neck  S,  concluded  by  this  S  acting 
with  the  digastric  collateral  with  the  rear  appui. 
We  suppose  the  pace  to  be  begun  with  the  neck  S 
and  the  collateral  digastric,  to  extend  to  the  thiixl 
S,  and  finally  to  be  concluded  by  the  ophidian  S 
and  the  diagonal  eye. 

There  was  what  might  be  called  an  "  ophidian 
action  "  of  the  head  articulation  coming  from  the 
spine  in  the  eye  movement  of  the  trot,  but  we 
have  now  the  thorough  action  of  the  separate  con- 
dyles ;  this  ended  the  trot,  but  begins  the  pace,  and 
the  sterno-mastoids  bring  the  tractions  fii'st  to  the 
sternum.  The  sternal  tractions  are  (§1  18)  collate- 
ral, and  hence  the  point  of  appui  will  be  two  feet  of 
the  same  side,  instead  of  as  in  the  trot,  diagonal. 

In  our  theory  of  the  trot,  the  back  bone  is  drawn 
over  the  sternum  and  the  final  stress  of  the  dis- 
charge brought  on  to  the  front  of  the  latter.  In 
that  of  the  pace,  the  sternum  is  first  drawn  forward 
find  the  final  stress  of  the  discharge  brought  to- 


156 


wards  tlie  root  of  the  neck  (or  perliapsthe  withers). 

It  is  apparent  that,  for  animals  which  carry 
great  weights  in  their  mouths,  as  the  Hon  with  its 
prey,  the  pace — since  it  may  commence  with  the 
lower  jaw  as  its  initiative  point — would  be  the  most 
advantageous.  The  sino^le-action  locomotion  of 
the  lion,  &c.,  is,  we  believe,  of  this  nature ;  and  it  is 
noticed  in  such  animals,  that  the  lower  jaw  articu- 
lation is  a  simple  hinge,  without  any  lateral  move- 
ment,"^'" so  that  the  body  must  rather  move  about 
the  lower  jaw,  than  the  lower  jaw  accommodate 
itself  to  the  movements  of  the  body. 

These  movement  of  the  pace,  however,  would 
more  properly  begin  with  a  head-condyle  and  its 
thorough  action.  It  is  in  this  way  we  suppose  them 
to  be  performed  by  the  Horse  and  the  Giraffe. 

The  digastric  loop  may  be  released  either  with  a 
lateral  movement  of  the  lower  jaw  as  at  A'  a'^ ,  or 
by  an  extended  lateral  movement  of  the  diaphragm 
as  the  base  of  the  lungs,  or  by  a  lateral  movement 
of  the  head  as  the  basis  from  which  the  digastrics 
hold ;  which  last  again  may  be  supplied  by  a  still 
freer  lateral  movement  of  the  jaw.    In  the  trot  of 

*  Possibly  the  fact  that,  from  the  absence  of  the  bony  partition  be- 
tween them,  the  (emporal  muscle  presses  directly  npon  the  eyeball  in 
these  animals,  may  have  sometlfing  to  do  with  so  connecting  the  digas- 
tric and  the  internal  oblique  of  the  eye  that  the  lateral  motion  of  the 
jaw  is  less  needed. 


157 


the  horse  the  lateral  movement  of  the  lower  jaw, 
as  it  leaves  its  outer  bearing,  supplies  whatever  is 
wanting  in  the  similar  movement  of  the  diaphragm. 
In  the  lion,  &c.,  the  long  flexible  body  gives  suffi- 
cient movement  to  the  diaphragm  for  replacing  en- 
tirely the  movement  of  the  jaw.  But  in  the  Giraffe 
there  must  be  an  extended  jaw  movement,  to  re- 
place the  want  of  proportional  lateral  movement 
of  the  diaphragm  caused  by  the  long  neck  and 
comparatively  short  body. 

When  moving  with  the  neck,  thefore-limhs  are  re- 
lated to  the  neck  S,'^  as  the  hind-limhs  are  to  the  third 
S,  and  thus  the  limb  on  the  side  of  the  rear  con- 
vex of  the  neck  will  receive  an  outer  bearing  turn, 
the  one  on  the  side  of  a  rear  concave  an  inward 
bearing  turn.  This  relation  will  be  more  ma:^ked 
when  the  neck  S  acts  first  as  in  the  pace. 

The  third  S  is  for  the  rear  luhat  the  neck  S  is  for 
the  front  (excepting  so  far  as  the  latter  is  more 
concerned  in  forming  the  bi-composite  spine).  After 
(for  the  pace)  receiving  its  development  in  the  an- 
terior line  by  the  extension  of  the  neck  S,  and 
when  this  developement  has  been  extended  to  the 
ophidian  S,  the  third  S  commences  the  formation  of 
the  POSTERIOR  winding  line.  From  the  beginning,  its. 

*  We  would  recall  the  fact  of  the  fore-limbs  being  head-limbs. 


158 


development  is  in  close  counter-action  with  the 
neck  S  and  the  latter  after  the  formation  of  the 
ophidian  part,  developes  the  bi-composite  spine 
for  the  line  by  the  final  thorough  movement  of  the 
condyles. 

§  145.  Eeferring  to  §  141  for  the  symbols  used, 
ive  should  form  the  pace  by  the  following  combina- 
tion : 

A  a^.  The  left  head  condyle  revolving  at  its  pos- 
terior end,  independently  of  any  preceding  ophidian 
movement,  throws  the  weight  on  to  the  left  fore-leg 
by  its  neck  connection ;  and  the  left  sterno-mastoid 
muscle  turning  outward  by  the  movement  imparted 
to  the  left  upper  comer  of  the  sternum,  through 
the  formation  of  the  left  convex  in  the  posterior  C 
of  the  neck  S,  turns  the  left  fore-foot  on  its  outer 
bearing.  This  working  is,  in  the  horse,  directly  as- 
sisted by  the  Levator  humeri  muscle  (§  86,  note*). 
There  wiU  also  be  a  certain  effect  in  throwing  the 
left  hind-foot  on  its  outer  hearing. 

a'^.  The  left-head  condyle  passes  its  interior 
side  against  the  interior  of  its  socket.  If  the  left 
fore-foot  were  fi'ee  this  would  carry  it  forward, 
but  this  foot  being  fixed,  the  traction  of  the  sterno- 


*  Were  the  foot  in  air,  the  drawing  of  this  muscle  would  bond  the 
3eg;  being  in  appui,  the  straightened  leg  draws  on  the  neck. 


159 


mastoid  becomes  diagonal  through  the  sternum, 
and  brings  the  (free)  right  hind  foot  someivliat  for- 
icarcl  with  its  inner  hearing  presented. 

a^  The  rear  part  of  the  composite  spine,  begin- 
ning with  the  third  S,  forms,  by  induction,  fi*om 
the  neck.  The  left  kind  foot  is  brought  more  fully 
on  to  its  outer  hearing. 

a'^  Right  fore-leg  hent  and  its  foot  presented  for 
outer  hearing  by  movement  of  sternum  to  the  left, 
changing  the  socket  facing  as  the  neck  root  joint 
moves. 

a^  Completion  of  outer  bearing  of  left  hindfoot. 

a'^  Completion  of  action  of  right  fore-foot,  as  in 
a'^  but  its  movement  now  derived  from  the  rear 
true  ribs. 

B  b'^  Begins  with  the  third  S,  but,  as  before 
said,  so  in  counter-action  with  the  neck  S  that 
they  move  almost  together.  Throws  left  hind-foot 
on  iniier  hearing.  Turns  right  hind-foot  on  outer 
hearing  and  advances  it. 

b'.  Brings  left  fore-foot  on  its  inner  hearing. 

b'2.  Right  hind-foot  forward  outer  hearing. 

b^  Eight  fore-foot  inner  bearing. 

b'^  Increase  of  b'^ 

b^  Increase  of  b^ 


160 


A'  a'.  Discharge.  Turns  riglit  fore-foot  on  outer 
hearing. 

—  a'^  Brings  riglit  fore-foot  forvf arcl. 

A'  a"  discharges  tlie  left  hind-foot  in  its  bi-com- 
posite  connection,  and  —  a'^  the  left  fore-foot  in  the 
same.  These  discharges,  of  course,  work  on  the 
sternum,  and  are  followed  by  the  composite  and 
ojDhidian  spines  ;  but,  from  the  circumstance  of 
the  altered  position  of  the  appuis  of  the  alternate 
anterior  line,  the  collateral  fore  and  hind-leg  are 
not  much  separated  after  leaving  the  ground. 

§  146.  One  difficulty  in  describing  all  the  gaits 
lies  in  the  difference  between  the  action  of  the  an- 
terior hne  when  first  throwing  the  body  into  posi- 
tion, and  its  action  when  as  "alternate  anterior'* 
it  discharges  the  gathered  three  springs  of  the  old 
Hues.  In  imagining  the  real  working  of  this  line, 
when  the  gait  is  fully  inaugurated,  we  must  bear 
in  mind  that,  then,  the  first  office  of  the  anterior 
line  is  to  discharge  the  old  spring,  after  which  it 
forms  the  basis  for  a  new  one. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  a  marked  distinction  be- 
tween the  trot  and  the  pace  consists  in  the  "  alter- 
nate neck  winding  line "  A'  a^  a"  forming  itself  in 
the  trot,  after  the  spring  and  landing,  but  in  the 
pace,  before  either. 


161 


lu  the  trot  the  discharge  of  the  C  C  succeeded 
each  otlier  "s\ith  a  marked  interval ;  that  is,  the 
rear  C  was  virtually  discharged  and  the  alternate 
anterior  line  for  this  part  formed,  before  the  ante- 
rior C  was  discharged  and  its  portion  of  the  alter- 
nate anterior  hne  was  formed,  and,  in  retrogression, 
vice  versa. 

But,  since  the  pace  begins  at  what  was  the  con- 
clusion of  the  trot,  the  two  C  C  are  discharged 
more  together,  and  the  discharging  alternate  ante- 
rior line,  ha\dng  awaited  their  discharge,  then  forms 
more  as  a  whole  ;  that  is,  in  the  trot  the  left  hind- 
leg  vu^tually  discharges  and  the  right  posterior 
lung  lobe  fills,  before  the  right  fore-leg  discharges 
and  the  left  anterior  lung  lobe  fills ;  whereas,  in  the 
jmce  the  left  hind  and  right  fore-leg  discharge  (this 
last  not  in  appui),  then  the  right  lower  and  left 
upper  lung  lobes  fill. 

The  above  described  difference  will  make  a  prom- 
inent point  in  "  setting  up,"  causing  a  distinction 
between  forcing  the  trotting  and  the  pacing  move- 
ments to  the  "third  result"  (§  76). 

The  Walk  is  described  by  von  Oeynhausen  as 
the  gait  in  which  each  foot  moves  at  separate  in- 
tervals, and  so  that,  VN^hile  in  moving  forward  each 
fore-foot  is  succeeded  by  its  diagonal  hind-foot, 


162 


each  hind-foot  is  succeeded  by  its  collateral  fore- 
foot. Thus,  supposing  (1)  the  right  hind-foot  to 
move  to  the  front,  then  (2)  the  right  fore-foot  next 
moves,  and,  for  an  instant,  the  horse  is  resting  on 
the  two  left  feet ;  (3)  the  right  hind-foot  is  put 
down,  the  horse  is  on  three  feet ;  (4)  the  right  fore- 
foot is  put  down,  the  horse  is  on  four  feet ;  (5,  6,  7 
and  8),  the  same  is  repeated,  with  the  opposite  side 
leading. 

§  147.  We  should  construct  the  icalk  from  the 
elements  of  locomotion  A,  B,  A'  given  in  §  141,  by 
supposing  the  action  of  the  primary  sections  sus- 
pended in  all  the  anterior  hues,  and  the  secondary 
sections  of  the  posterior  lines  to  be  carried  only 
far  enough  to  secure  the  necessary  reactions  in  the 
posterior  C  C  C.  In  this  way,  the  through  ball  and 
socket  action  of  the  neck-root  joint  is  passed  over, 
and  the  fore-feet  given  up  almost  entirely  to  the 
neck  action ;  the  hind-feet  to  the  body  action. 
From  this  gait  the  extension  of  the  neck  S  lines, 
when  they  are  developing,  will  produce  the  pace ; 
the  extension  of  the  ophidian  hues,  the  trot.  The 
passage  of  the  outer  and  inner  edges  of  the  con- 
dyles will  be  very  imperfectly  made,  and  the  pass- 
age from  the  anterior  to  the  posterior  condyle  ends 
will  thus  take  place  with  something  of  a  jerk,  which 


163 


gives  a  "nodding  motion"  at  each  step,  particularly 
marked  in  good  walkers. 

A.  a^  Puts  weight  on  left  hind- foot. 

a'.  Increases  this  joining  the  ophidian  and  third 
SS. 

a\  Puts  the  iveight  on  left  fore-foot.  Raises  right 
fore. 

B.  h'^  and  b'^  Brings  left  hind-foot  on  its  in- 
ner hearing;  turns  right  hind-foot  for  outer  hearing 
and  brings  it  foriuard. 

h'^.  Puts  left  fore-foot  on  inner  hearing. 

A'.  a\  Keleases  a^  b'^ 

a^.  Keleases  a''  b''  at  junction  of  central  and  third 
S.     Puts  down  right  hind-foot. 

a^.  Carries/orirarc?  and  puts  down  right  fore. 

Thus  we  have  A'  a^  right  hind  foot  down.  A'^ 
right  fore  foot  down.  We  are  inchned  to  think  that 
in  \hQ  full  progress  of  the  step  a  fore-foot  leaves  the 
ground  as  the  opposite  fore-foot  is  put  down,  thus 
shghtly  differing  from  the  description  of  von 
Oeynhausen  ;  but  as  this  fore-foot,  after  rising, 
awaits  the  movement  of  the  collateral  hind-foot, 
raised  and  carried  forward  by  the  posterior  line^ 
the  difference  is  not  important. 

§  148.  Retrogressio7i  may  be  brought  about,  after 
the  formation  of  the   diagonal  oppositions  which 


164 


prepare  for  the  spring  forward,  by  refusing  the 
discharge  and  continuing  to  develope  the  original 
hues  of  gathering.  While  the  alternate  anterior 
line  is  kept  from  forming  (§70  snake's  motion),  the 
head-joint,  both  as  to  its  ophidian  and  separate 
condyle  (or  limb)  motion,  will  change  to  the  alter- 
nate bearings,  and  the  effect  of  this  will  he—frst, 
to  change  the  appuis  to  the  alternate  legs  ;  and 
second,  on  these  concave  appuis  to  discharge  the 
old  lines  and  form  the  new  ones. 

This  delaying  the  spring  until  all  the  concaves 
have  actually  changed  to  convexes,  and  thus  mak- 
ing that  change  on  the  ground  entirely,  instead  of 
finishing  it  in  air,  again  brings  the  head  condyles, 
in  advance,  into  their  alternate  position,  and  puts 
the  concaves  in  appui  for  the  next  step. 

We  think  that  Jive  points  of  difference  from  pro- 
gression must  be  produced  by  that  accumulation 
of  action  at  the  head-joint  which,  in  retrogression, 
at  each  step  keeps  the  balance  of  gravity  on  the 
concaves.  (1.)  The  filling  of  the  alternating  lung 
lobes  must  be  in  advance  of  that  in  progression. 
(2.)  The  passage  of  the  convexes  over  the  con- 
caves (§  60)  must  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  if,  in- 
deed, the  contrary  action  do  not  have  place.  (3.) 
The  thiTist  of  the  feet  of  appui,  depending  now  on 


165 


the  actual  change  of  the  spinal  convexities  (§  61), 
the  movement  of  the  diagonal  feet  of  appui,  in 
the  backward  trot,  must  be  more  nearly  synchro- 
nous than  in  that  of  progression.  (4.)  The  action 
of  the  lower  jaw  must,  in  proper  backing,  be  that 
of  yielding,  instead  of  forcing,  at  the  moment  of 
the  spring,  the  alternating  joint  leading  the  work- 
ing one. 

(5.)  In  hacJdng  (§  70)  the  feet  leave  the  ground  by 
the  outer  bearings  and  take  it  again  by  tJw  inner 
bearing,  exactly  the  reverse  of  progi-ession. 

§149.  The  Halt.  In  the  "the  third  result"  of 
forcing  the  winding  lines  in  the  snake  (§  71),  we 
endeavoured  to  describe  that  of  bringing  on 
the  formation  of  one  line  by  induction  from  the 
continued  forcing  of  the  other,  after  the  alloioed 
counteractions  had  been  already  formed ;  also  to 
show  that  so  doing  would  bring  on  an  equaHzation 
of  gathering  in  the  two  sides,  resulting  finally  in  the 
^'  superimposition  of  twists,"  a  formation  in  which 
all  four  winding  lines  are  developed  at  the  same 
time,  and  consequently  all  lateral  curvatures  sup- 
pressed. 

As  the  actions  of  halting  are  identical  with  those 
on  which  our  theory  of  "  setting  up  "  is  founded, 


8 


166 


we  shall  postpone  a  part  of  the  details  to  the  sec- 
tions in  which  that  subject  is  treated. 

In  retrogression  both  the  anterior  and  posterior 
lines  were  separately  formed,  but  if  one  line  be 
forced  and  the  other  form  by  induction,  then,  from 
the  continuance  of  this  forcing,  we  shall  have  as 
the  result,  equalization  of  gathering  on  the  two> 
sides,  and  thus  a  position  from  which  any  gait  may 
be  initiated  by  a  redistribution  of  the  tractions. 

Any  portion  in  the  course  of  the  icinding  line  may  he 
selected  for  commencing  the  forcing,  and  the  equalization 
will  then  hegin  at  the  point  ivhich  would  have  been 
formed  by  that  moment  of  action  in  the  original 
formation  of  the  line. 

We  shall,  however,  for  the  present,  consider  the 
forcing  as  beginning  in  each  S,  at  a  point  of  ap- 
plication. 

When  a  horse  lands  from  any  spring,  he  may  be 
halted  in  three  ivays."^  First  on  the  alternate  an- 
terior line  of  the  ophidian  spine — this  line  having 
being  brought  into  superadded  action  by  the 
pressure  of  the  legs  or  by  the  spur,  while  the  bit 
checks  the  extension  of  the  line  to  a^  in  the  neck  S 
until  this  is  formed  as  part  of  the  adjustment  in 
equalizing  the  sides  from  forcing  its  ophidian 
portion.     In  this  case  the  horse  will  be  halted  on 


167 


the  outer  bearings  of  the  feet,  and  then  come  on  to 
the  inner  bearings ;  i.  e.,  he  will  be  halted  in  pro- 
gression, probably  the  most  advantageous  method. 

Second. — On  the  alternate  posterior  line  of  the 
ophidian  S.  In  this  case  the  bit  is  drawn  as  the 
posterior  line  begins  to  form,  after  landing,  and 
the  spur  is  applied  after  the  bit.  The  action  of  the 
neck  S  in  the  anterior  hne  (a^a'^)  having  preceded 
it,  a  fore-foot  will  have  been  raised.  In  this  case 
the  horse  will  be  halted  on  the  inner  bearings,  be- 
ginning with  the  hind  leg  of  appui,  and  then  come 
on  to  the  outer  bearings,  i.  e.,  he  will  be  halted  in 
retrogression.  This  is  not  a  false  halt,  and  is  we 
believe  the  one  generally  used  by  the  Arabs,  and 
perhaps  that  used  by  the  animal  in  a  state  of 
nature.  Third. — The  rein  may  be  drawn  after 
landing,  before  the  action  (a^  a'^j  of  the  neck  is 
completed.  As  the  neck  inaugurates  a  pacing 
movement,  the  halt  will  then  be  made  in  a  pace 
ingrafted  on  the  trot,  causing  a  very  awkward 
equaHzation  of  gathering,  and  this  we  suppose 
to  be  the  "  halt  on  the  shoulders  "  so  much  depre- 
cated by  aU  horsemen. 

§  150.    Double-action  Motion^   from   position   of 


*We  refer  to  the  trot  in  exemplifying  the  subject. 


168 


"  Superimposition  of  twists  "  (§  71) ;  i.  e.,  spring  by 
two  rear  and  two  front  appuis. 

§  151.  The  Double-action  Trot  or  Square-Jump 
must  differ  very  considerably  from  the  single  ac- 
tion in  the  movement  of  the  feet,  since  one  fore- 
foot can  no  longer  be  thrown  forward  by  the  neck 
movement,  A  a^  a'^  (§  143),  while  the  other  fore- 
foot acts  in  appui ;  on  the  contrary,  the  fore-feet 
when  thrown  forward  must  depend  for  support  on 
the  hind  feet,  or  on  an  impetus  derived  from  the 
spring  of  the  hind  feet.  And,  also,  since  all  the  legs 
must  be  affected,  before  the  spring,  hy  both  the  body 
and  neck  gatherings. 

§  152.  We  shall  be  obhged  to  add  to  the  sym- 
bols, §  141,  a  character  representing  the  right  an- 
terior and  left  posterior  winding  lines  which  can  no 
longer  be  regarded  as  alternate,  by  giving  an  Italic 
letter  to  these  last,  thus  A  a*  a'*,  A',  and  so  on, 
for  the  right  anterior  Hues,  B  b'^  b^  B',  for  the 
left  posterior. 

§  153.  In  the  double  trot  the  anterior  winding 
lines,  left  and  right,  acting  together  throughout 
their  secondary  and  primary  sections,  in  the  ophid- 
ian S,  throw,  by  change  of  centres  of  gravity,  the 
weight  on  the  outer  bearings  of  both  hind  and  both 


169 


fore-feet.  Cause  both  internal  oblique  eye  muscles 
to  roll  outward,  &c.,  &c.     A  ^  a^  a^  a'^  a'^. 

a  2  Of  ^  Form  tlie  rear  of  the  composite  spine. 
Cause  the  back,  from  the  junction  of  the  third  and 
ophidian  S  S  to  the  tail,  to  begin  forming  a  con- 
vex in  the  medium  perpendicular  plane*.  Increase 
the  outward  hearing  of  both  hind-feet. 

sl'^  a'^.  Forms  the  anterior  part  of  the  com- 
posite spine.  Moves  the  neck-root  joint  as  ball  and 
socket  for  these  lines.  Increases  outward  hearing 
of  hoth fore-feet. 

a^  a^.  Both  digastrics  roll  outward.  Both  loops 
drawn  back.  Muscles  connecting  pubis  and  ster- 
num tightened.  Bicomposite  spine  formed  in  rear 
for  anterior  Hne. 

a'^  a'^.  Fore-feet  fully  on  outward  bearing. 
Digastric  loops  to  rear  limits.  Motion  of  con- 
dyles and  motion  in  neck-root  joint  completed  for 
anterior  lines.  Bicomposite  spine  completed  for 
the  same.  Both  lower  jaw  articulations  set  on 
their  analogical  outer  bearing. 

B  B.  In  the  ophidian  and  composite  spines  these 


*  The  perpendicular  convexities  are  properly  two  for  each  S  S  S, 
but,  as  the  bicomposite  spine  forms,  the  various  portions  are  so  reduced 
as  to  form  two  for  the  whole  body,  one  the  neck  and  part  of  the  ophid- 
ian spine,  the  other,  jiart  of  the  ophidian  spine  and  the  third  S.  Be- 
tween the  two  the  centre  of  the  ophidian  spine  lies  in  concave. 


170 


lines  bring  the  hind  and  fore-feet  on  their  inner 
bearings.  In  the  bicomposite  spine  this  beariQg  is 
increased,  and  the  whole  body  brought  iato  one 
gathering  with  two  convexes,  upward,  in  the  me- 
dian perpendicular  plane ;  i.  e.,  one  consisting  of 
the  neck  and  part  of  the  ophidian  spine,  the  other 
of  part  of  the  ophidian  spine  and  the  third  S ;  the 
centre  of  the  ophidian  spine  sinking  as  a  concave 
between  them.* 

A'  A'.  Eelease  the  gathered  springs  of  all  the 
spines  successively  before  leaving  the  ground,  and 
beguirdng  with  the  ophidian  spine.  The  hind-feet 
are  thus  released  first,  and  the  fore-feet  imme- 
diately after  them.  The  release  of  the  fore-feet 
by  the  alternate  neck  lines — which  in  the  single 
action  trot  would  have  been  accomphshed  after 
the  landing — is  in  the  double  action  accompanied 
by  a  sudden  and  rapid  carrying  of  them  forward, 
at  the  time  when  the  head  condyles  change  their 
bearing. 

The  feet  come  down  gathered  on  the  anterior 
lines,  and  immediately  form  on  B'  B',  and  so  on. 

§  154.  At  one  moment  of  the  "  double  trot " 
the  horse  is  much  extended,  the  fore-feet  being 


*  Here  again  wo  have  the  centre  between  the  hmg  lobes  as  the 
"  centre  of  force"  for  the  whole  body  (§  99). 


171 


tstretched  forward  and  the  hind-feet  just  drawing 
up  from  the  thrust  backward.  The  whole  action 
is  so  violent  that  it  is  unfitted  for  more  than  a  few 
iDOunds. 

The  landing  may  be  made  on  the  hind  or  the 
fore-feet,  according  to  the  distribution  and  force  of 
the  gathering. 

As  the  animal  is  ia  "  double  superimposition  of 
twdsts  "  at  each  gathering,  there  will  be  no  equali- 
zation of  the  sides  at  the  Halt,  which  now  can  be 
made  only  on  the  alternate  posterior  line,  and,  by 
a  violent  and  disturbing  effort  on  the  neck  action. 

§155.  The  Double  Pace  or  Full  Run  ("Car- 
riere  ").  This  gait  will  bear  the  same  relation  to 
the  single  action  pace  that  double  action  trot  bears 
to  single  action.  The  movement,  however,  will 
differ  widely  from  that  of  the  trot,  inasmuch  as  the 
whole  bicomposite  spine  is  first  discharged  by  the 
sternum,  and  the  hind-legs  follow  so  closely  on  to 
ihe  fore  that  they  separate  but  little  either  in  leav- 
ing the  ground  or  on  landing.  As  in  the  pace,  the 
head  condyles  change  their  beaiings  while  the 
appuis  are  still  on  the  ground  (in  the  double  trot 
they  change  in  air).  The  push  at  the  bit  should 
•also  be  different,  since  the  lower  jaw  articulations 
preceding  the  digastrics  in  their  movements,  it  will 


172 


occur  before  the  Mnd-feet  leave  the  ground  instead 
of,  as  in  the  trot,  just  as  they  have  done  so.* 

§  156.  The  Canterj-  or  Gallop.  There  remains  still 
this  other  perfect  gait,  which  is  the  usual  method 
of  locomotion  in  double  action. 

If  we  consider  the  double  trot,  in  reference  to 
the  alternate  expanding  and  contracting  of  the 
lung  lobes,  it  will  be  seen  that,  in  the  gatherings,, 
there  is  a  very  forcible  expansion  of  them,  in  which 
state  they  are  retained  to  await  the  movement  of 
the  breast-bone  (or  "  substitute  gi'ound").  This  is 
evidently  a  laborious  action,  as  may  be  observed 
when  putting  a  horse  through  the  movement.  On 
the  other  hand,  although  the  double  pace  is  easier, 
because  the  extreme  tension  comes  on  only  at  the 
moment  when  the  completion  of  the  final  diagonal 
actions  enables  the  lungs  readily  to  relieve  them- 
selves at  the  spring,  and  makes  this  gait  the  one 
for  the  highest  speed.  Yet,  since  it  requires  a 
complete  leaving  of  the  ground  by  aU  four 
appuis  at  the  same  moment,  and  gives  no  inter- 
mediate instant  of  rest  on  two  appuis,  it  calls  for  a 
great  expenditure  of  force. 


*  It  must  be  necessary  for  the  lion,  &c.,  when  carrying  a  weight 
in  the  mouth,  that  the  condyles  and  lower  jaw  should  take  their  alternate^ 
bearings  before  the  body  leaves  the  ground. 

t  We  shall  use  the  term  canter  as  more  definite  than  gallop. 


173 


These  objections  existing  for  any  ordinary 
movement,  either  in  the  double  trot  or  double 
pace,  a  combination  of  the  two  is  adopted  as  the 
usual  method  of  locomotion  with  double  action. 

The  succession  of  the  feet  in  the  canter,  accord- 
ing to  Yon  Oe^Tihausen,  is  in  leavinc/  the  ground. 
(1.)  a'  hind-foot ;  (2.)  the  collateral  fore  and  op- 
posite hind-foot,  so  closely  in  succession  as  to  be 
almost  synchronous ;  (3.)  the  diagonal  fore-foot. 
In  coming  to  the  ground  the  order  is  the  same,  ex- 
cepting that  when  the  iveight  is  ivell  on  the  hauncheSy 
the  hind  foot  of  No.  2  anticipates  its  diagonal  fore- 
foot, and  in  this  latter  case  there  will  he  four 
"  beats,"  since  each  foot  comes  separately  doTvn, 
whereas  in  the  former  only  three  can  be  separated 
by  the  ear. 

It  is  evident,  we  think,  that  von  Oeynhausen 
considers  that  iu  No.  2  the  collateral  fore-foot  an- 
ticipates the  opposite  hind-foot  in  leaving  the 
ground,  and  that  (adopting  our  usual  illustra- 
tion), we  have — (1.)  The  left  hind-foot ;  (2.)  the 
left  fore-foot ;  (3.)  the  right  hind-foot ;  (4.)  the 
right  fore-foot.  This  would  give  1;he  same  relative 
"  succession "  as  in  the  walk,  the  Kkeness  of 
which  to  the  canter  he  thus  particularly  points 
out :  "  The  similarity  between  the  succession  of  the 


174 


feet  in  the  woUi  and  in  the  golloip  will  not  have  es- 
caped the  observation  of  the  reader.  *  *  * 
It  is  also  a  frequently  repeated  remark,  and  one 
confirmed  by  experience,  that  the  goodness  or 
faultiness  of  the  walk  and  gallop  are  nearly  re- 
lated to  each  other." 

§  157.  We  should  explaia  von  Oeynhausen's 
description  of  the  canter,  in  accord  with  our  theory 
of  tractions,  in  the  following  manner  : 

We  will  suppose  the  canter  to  be  "  to  the  right," 
which  may  be  best  illustrated  by  assuming  that 
the  horse  is  moving  around  a  circle  of  which  the 
centre  is  to  his  right.  The  left  legs  are  then  the 
outer  legs,  the  right  legs  the  inner  ones,  and  if  the 
horse  be  cantering  properly  he  "  leads  "  with  his 
right  (inner)  fore-leg. 

In  the  "succession"  of  the  walk — right  hind, 
right  fore ;  left  hind,  left  fore.  It  will  be  no- 
ticed that  the  two  legs  of  the  right  side  succes- 
sively pass  the  two  of  the  left  side,  then  those  of 
the  left  the  two  of  the  right,  and  so  on.  This  von 
Oeynhausen  makes  the  Jpasis  of  his  description  of 
the  canter,  and  we  shall  use  it  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. 

One  may  imagine  a  gait  in  which  the  movements 
of  the  walk   are  performed  with  a  double  action. 


175 


This  would  allow  of  no  ball  and  socket  action  at 
the  neck  root  joint,  but  would  give  a  double  trot 
for  the  body  limbs  and  a  double  pace  for  the  head 
limbs.  Now,  if  in  such  double  action  a  certain 
amount  of  lateral  curvature — say  convex  to  the 
left  in  the  rear  C  C,  to  the  right  in  the  front  C  C — 
be  allowed  in  the  S  S,  and  this  curvature  be  con- 
stantly maintained,  we  shall  have  the  double  ac- 
tion trot  of  the  hind-legs  and  the  double  action 
pace  of  the  fore-legs,  modified  by  a  moment  of  sin- 
gle action  for  the  legs  of  either  side,  as  the 
winding-Hnes  form,  and  in  which  the  right-left 
counteractions  will  not  at  all  enter  the  neck  root 
joint,  thus  leaving  the  left  fore-leg  entirely  to  the 
neck  action,  as  in  the  walk,  and  the  left-right 
counteractions  will  enter  to  only  a  certain  dis- 
tance, as  the  partial  actions  of  the  left  head-con- 
dyle  and  right  head  joint  socket  carry  it.  That 
is,  the  single  actions  of  the  body  and  of  the  neck, 
by  which  the  gatherings  of  the  left  hind  and  left 
fore-legs  begin,  are,  at  their  ending,  merged  in 
double  action  with  the  beginning  of  the  gather- 
ings for  the  right  side  legs,  and  the  right  side 
gatherings  again  end  in  single  action. 

The  whole  action  of  the  right  hind-leg  is,  when 
the  rear  C  C  are  maintained  convex  to  the  left,  made 


176 


less  forcible  by  reason  of  the  left  anterior  cross- 
line  end  being  kept  from  moving  to  the  right,  and 
the  movement  of  the  left  fore-leg  is  restricted,  the 
anterior  C  C  being  maintained  convex  to  the  right, 
because  the  true  ribs  of  the  left  side  are  kept  from 
passing  the  sternum  fully  over  to  its  support. 

These  C  C  being  thus  constantly  kept  partially 
convex,  let  us  suppose  that  (1)  the  horse  has  in  the 
walk  put  down  the  left  hind-leg  to  gather  on  the  an- 
terior winding  lines  q}  a*^,  and  that  the  gathering 
thus  made  is  maintained,  but  kept  suppressed. 
(2)  He  gathers  on  the  left  condyle  for  the  left  fore- 
leg, and  this  is  also  kept  in  abeyance.  (3)  and  (4) 
He  gathers  in  the  same  way  for  the  right  side. 
The  gatherings  for  the  two  sides  will  coalesce  at  the 
ending  of  the  one  and  the  beguining  of  the  other. 

Let  the  posterior  lines  be  formed  iq  the  same 
way  for  both  sides. 

There  are  now,  as  it  may  be  said,  "  latent "  four 
movements  of  the  walk,  and  if,  when  the  alternate 
anterior  lines  are  formed  to  discharge  them,  the 
discharge  be  restraiaed,  so  that  all  of  them  spring 
nearly  at  once,  the  steps,  so  far  as  passing  the  feet 
is  concerned,  will  take  place  in  air. 

The  order  of  the  spring  wlQ  be  : — (1)  The  left  hind- 
foot  (rear  action  exaggerated).     (2)  The  left  fore- 


177 


foot  (forward  action  limited).  (3)  The  right  hind 
(rear  action  limited).^  (4)  The  right  fore  (forward 
action  exaggerated)  while  in  air,  first  the  left  hind 
and  left  fore-feet  will  successively  pass  those  of  the 
right  side  as  the  hoi^se  rises,  fulfilling  their  steps  ; 
second,  the  right  hind  and  right  fore  will  repass 
those  of  the  left  side  as  the  Jiorse  descends,  fulfilling 
their  steps.  All  the  feet  will  then  come  down 
in  the  same  order,  and  to  the  same  positions  as  at 
the  start. 

In  this  gait,  by  reason  of  the  permanent  bendings 
of  the  body  and  neck  S  S,  the  left  stifle  joint  and 
the  point  of  the  left  shoulder  are  held  always  in 
rear  of  those  of  the  right  side,t  and  thus,  although 
each  foot  passes,  the  ivJiole  leg  does  not. 

If,  during  tJie  canter,  the  horse  extend  the  neck-root 
action  from  the  neck  backward,  he  launches  into  the 
"full  run,''  if  he  extend  it  from  the  ophidian  S  for- 
ward he  takes  the  "  double  trot.'' 

Von  Oeynhausen  is  inclined  to  explain  the  "  07ily 
two  beats"  which  are  heard  and  felt  in  the  full  run 
as  coming,  not  from  the  two  hind-feet  giving  one 
sound  and  the  two  fore-feet  another,  but  from  the 

*  A3  before  stated,  the  times  of  2  and  3  are  so  close  together  in  de- 
scending that  the  ear  cannot  distinguish  them,  and  also  if  the  haunches 
be  weighted,  3  (the  foot  not  the  leg)  precedes  2. 

t  VoM  Oeynhausen  lays  much  stress  on  this. 


178 


left  hind  and  left  fore-feet  giving  one  sound,  and 
the  right  hind  and  right  fore  another.  This  may 
be  so,  and  consequently,  perhaps  the  double  action 
never  entirely  lose  a  slight  one-sided  element,  but 
this  would  seem  to  take  from  its  perfection,  and  we 
should  rather  believe  that  the  two  sounds  come 
from  the  slight  difference  in  the  times  of  landing 
of  the  two  front  and  the  two  hind  feet. 

:§L58.  The  "  Disunited  gallop.''  In  this  move- 
ment the  shoulder  of,  say  the  left  side,  is  in  ad- 
vance, while  the  stifle-joint  of  the  same  side  is  in 
rear.  On  our  theory  this  must  be  explained  by 
supposing  the  horse  to  introduce  the  wrong  con- 
dyle into  action  with  the  ophidian  movement. 

§159.  We  shall  leave  the  other  actions  of  the 
horse  for  the  subject  of  riding,  since  their  descrip- 
tion is  so  connected  with  that  of  the  "  aids  "  used 
by  the  rider  for  producing  them,  as  to  render  it 
difficult  to  separate  the  one  from  the  other. 


179 
PAET  V. 

SETTING-UP. 

Before  rehearsing  the  chief  points  which  are 
concerned  in  "  setting-up,"  we  will  allude  to  some 
general  principles. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  alternate  head  ball 
motion,  in  gathering  the  alternate  anterior  line, 
coincides  in  direction  with  the  old  motion  of  the 
underlying  socket,  m  gathering  the  old  posterior 
line.  Now  this  alternate  ball  motion  absorbs  the 
old  socket  gathering,  and  thus  transforms  it  into 
the  alternate  anterior  gathering,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  releases  the  old  anterior  gathering,  which 
was  held  under  control  by  the  now  transferred  and 
metamorphosed  posterior  winding  line. 

We  say  "  metamorphosed  luinding  line  "  because 
the  same  thing  takes  place  at  all  the  articulations, 
and  thus  the  (for  instance)  right  posterior  winding 
line  becomes  the  right  anterior  winding  line,  the 
concave  to  the  right  of  the  lower  C  ascending  to 
the  upper  C,  and  vice  versa. 

The  head  joint  changes  its  relations,  in  which 
the  ball  represents  the  anterior,  the  socket  the 
posterior  line  by  a  concentrated  working,  the  other 
joints  do  so  by  an  eccentric  movement  which  gives 


180 


an  epicycloidal  sliape  to  tlieir  curves  of  transform- 
ation. 

At  the  cross-lines  the  same  movement  has  place, 
the  direction  in  which  the  old  (for  example)  right 
posterior  line  turns  its  posterior  cross-line  end 
is  the  same  in  which  the  alternate  right  anterior 
line  will  turn  its  anterior  end,  and  they  will  both 
draw  their  ends  over  to  the  same  (here  the  right) 
side,  where  the  joint  will  slip,  the  remaining  alter- 
nate line  claim  its  traction,  and  the  workings  again 
become  diagonal. 

It  is  the  rectifying  of  the  cross-line,  and  that, 
finally,  between  the  Inng-lobes,  which  is,  as  it  may 
be  expressed,  the  sticking  point  in  "  setting-up." 

§  160.  In  man  as  has  been  mentioned,  there  is 
one  more  gathering  than  in  the  horse,  viz.:  that 
which  brings  the  bearings  of  all  the  tractions  above 
the  collar  bones,  and  unites  the  results  of  all  the 
S  S  in  the  hands. 

With  this  addition,  which  is  only  an  extension 
of  those  turns  at  the  upper  comer  of  the  sternum 
that  unite  the  rear  C  C  of  the  central  and  third 
S  S  together  in  the  neck,  the  principles  of  motion 
in  man  are  precisely  similar  to  those  in  quadru- 
peds, and  we  may  refer  to  the  foregoing  discussions, 
for  every  explanation  that  may  be  required. 


181 


The  great  cause  of  deformity  in  civilized  man 
we  assume  to  be  the  preponderating  exercise  of  one 
set  of  diagonal  corae  counteractions,  until  the 
muscles  affected  by  them  have  acquired  an  undue 
proportion  of  strength,  and  permanently  fixed  the 
convexes  which  accompany  their  gatherings. 
Thus,  the  change  from  one  set  of  diagonal  appuis 
to  the  other  no  longer  cames  with  it  that  complete 
change  of  socket  bearings,  throughout  the  joints 
of  the  body,  which  should  take  place.  In  fact,  the 
movements  of  a  man  under  such  circumstances, 
whether  walking  or  running,  are,  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent,  varying  with  individuals,  under  the 
conditions  of  those  of  a  horse  in  the  canter,  and  in 
most  men  these  conditions  are  those  of  a  canter  to 
the  right,  viz.,  on  the  left  leg  as  a  principal  appui, 
and  with  the  right  arm  as  the  "  leading  limb." 

We  now  propose,  first,  to  describe  the  course  of 
action  in  setting-up  on  the  basis  of  the  halting  of  a 
Iwrse  from  the  trot. 

We  shall  then  aUude  to  the  movement  from 
other  conditions,  and  shall  also  give  some  exercises 
founded  on  the  filling  and  exhausting  of  the  lung 
lobes,  and  the  movements  which  the  extending  in- 
fluence of  these  brings  on  in  the  composite  and 
the  bicomposite  cycles. 


182 


The  lung  exercises  will  afford  tlie  best  clew  for 
those  who,  from  want  of  anatomical  knowledge,  or 
from  the  want  of  clearness  in  our  own  explana- 
tions, may  ftnd  difficulties  with  the  other  methods. 
In  addition  to  these  advantages  it  is,  perhaps, 
safest  always  first  to  fill  up  the  lungs  in  any  ex- 
ercises which  involve  lifting,  or  give  a  strain  to 
•one  particular  part  of  the  body. 

§  161.  The  movements  of  setting-up  are  not  so 
comphcated  as  they  might  seem,  since  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  initiatory  motion  entails  all  the 
others,  and  the  chief  difficulty  is  rather  to  know 
what  directions  of  movement  are  to  be  permitted, 
than  what  ones  are  to  be  made. 

§  162.  It  may,  however,  be  as  well  here  to  re- 
capitulate the  leading  points  assumed  for  locomo- 
tion and  for  halting. 

First, — The  winding-Hnes  act  for  each  S  in  two 
sections.  The  beginning  and  ending  of  each  line 
are  collateral,  so  that  the  "  point  of  application  " 
of  an  anterior  "  winding-line  "  is  identical  with  the 
ending  of  its  collateral  posterior  "winding-line," 
and  the  point  of  application  of  a  posterior  line  is 
identical  with  the  ending  of  its  collateral  anterior 
line.  The  anterior  lines  develope,  at  first,  spe- 
'Cially  in  their  secondary    or  posterior   sections. 


183 


and  are  always  connected  with  the  head  condyle 
movements,  whether  these  be  superficial  to  accom- 
modate the  turnings  which  ascend  the  neck  from 
the  ophidian  and  composite  spines,  or  thorough  to 
accompany  the  formation  of  the  bicomposite 
spine. 

The  secondary  sections  of  the  anterior  lines  af- 
fect the  anterior  part  of  the  eye  muscles  and  di- 
gastrics with  an  outward  turn ;  the  primary,  the 
posterior  part  in  a  similar  way. 

It  is  in  displacing  or  equalizing  the  positions  of 
the  anterior  cross-line  ends  that  the  primary  sec- 
tion motion  more  particularly  manifests  itself. 

The  anterior  Knes  give  outward  bearings  on  the 
convexe§,  the  posterior  lines  give  inward  bearings 
on  the  convexes^  but  on  the  concaves  they  give  out- 
ward T3earings.  Thus,  when  the  alternate  left 
upper  lung  lobe  is  filled  in  equalizing,  it  is  with  an 
outer  bearing  of  the  lower  (left)  true  ribs,  being  in 
the  secondary  section  equalization  of  the  left  post 
point  of  apphcation. 

Second. — The  posterior  lines  would  develope  in 
a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  anterior  lines,  viz. : 
first,  and  more  especially,  in  the  front  C  C  C,  as 
the  anterior  do  in  the  rear  C  C  C,  and  end  by 
moving  the  posterior  cross-line  ends,  were  it  not 


184 


that,  in  quadrupeds  and  man  (and,  we  suppose, 
in  most  species  of  the  snake),  the  normal  position 
of  the  ribs  for  an  outer  bearing  so  interferes  with 
their  course  as  to  bring  the  first  development  of  the 
posterior  lines  also  into  the  rear  C  C  C,  this  being, 
however,  a  reflex  action  from  the  suppressed 
movements  of  their  secondary  sections  in  the  front 
C  C  C.  Thus  it  is  not  until  the  working  in  the 
front  C  C  C  is  carried  out  that  the  posterior  point 
of  application  can  act  directly  in  its  primary  sec- 
tion and  move  the  posterior  cross-line  end. 

This  peculiarity  in  the  action  of  the  posterior 
winding  lines  is  what  secures  progressive  or  (chang- 
ing the  appuis)  retrogressive  locomotion  instead  of 
two  springs,  one  to  the  rear  and  the  other  forward 
and  centering  in  the  cross-line  (§§  31,  32). 

Third. — As  every  stage  in  the  process  of  halting 
is  formed  by  induction  from  the  continuance  of  the 
first  action,  it  follows  that  this  first  action,  whether 
of  an  anterior  "point  of  application"  by  the  head- 
condyle  movement,  or  of  a  posterior  "point"  by  its 
socket  movement,  must  also  be  the  last  action,  so 
far  as  induction  can  carry  the  movement.  Thus, 
in  forcing  the  left  head  condyle  and  its  anterior 
Hue  (§  71)  the  equahzing  of  the  condyles  must  be 
its  final  action ;  and  in  forcing  the  right  socket 


185 


movement  with  the  right  posterior  action  the 
equalization  of  the  sockets  must  be  its  final  ac- 
tion. But,  in  the  first  case,  though  the  left  ante- 
rior line  would  be  reduced  as  the  right  condyle 
came  into  place,  by  the  drawmg  of  the  right  sterno- 
mastoid  at  the  right  upper  corner  of  the  sternum, 
a  further  and  separate  action  of  the  right  posterior 
line  would  be  required  to  give  full  equahzation  to 
the  alternate  left  posterior  line  and  carry  out  the 
collateral  drawing  from  the  pelvis.  And  in  the 
same  way,  in  the  second  case,  induction  from  the 
right  posterior  line  being  finished  by  equalizing  the 
position  of  the  left  socket  with  the  right  one  and 
drawing  on  the  left  shoulder-blade,  a  separate  ac- 
tion of  the  left  anterior  Hue  would  be  necessary  to 
carry  out  the  drawing  of  the  right  alternate  line 
from  the  head. 

Fourth. — Although  the  forcing  tractions  may  be 
begun  at  any  point,  and  their  relations  afterwards 
adjusted,  yet  the  regular  succession,  in  order  to  a 
smooth  working,  is  to  begin  in  any  S  with  the  point 
of  application,  either  of  the  anterior  or  posterior 
line,  and  to  continue  that  line  through  the  forma- 
tion of  all  the  "spines"  before  the  other  line  begins 
by  induction. 

Fifth. — In  the  equalizations,  the  new  formations 


186 


are  evidently  developments  on  the  alternate  lines> 
and  we  may  therefore,  instead  of  forcing  the  old 
lines  in  order  to  form  the  equahzed  alternates, 
begin  by  forming  the  alternates  and  drawing  from 
the  old  lines.  That  is,  instead  of  forcing  A  and  B 
in  order  to  produce  A  and  B,  begin  with  forming 
A  and  B  and  reducing  A  and  B. 

In  this  case  of  beginning  with  the  alternates,, 
however,  the  direction  of  action  will  be,  at  every 
point,  reversed.  For  instance,  in  producing  h'^  from 
b'*  the  right  true  ribs  are  drawn  around  by  the 
right  to  the  rear,  being  the  movement  in  the  sec- 
ondary section  of  the  right  posterior  lines ;  but 
beginning  with  h'^  these  true  ribs  (the  "right  shoul- 
der") are  advanced,  because  the  basis  of  action  is 
the  left  posterior  line,  which  draws  back  the  left 
true  ribs. 

Sixth, — The  general  course  of  the  winding  lines 
of  the  hicomposite  spine  may  be  given  as  follows, 
and  since  the  object  in  Setting-up  is  to  form  these 
lines  by  the  fusing  of  those  of  the  S  S  S,  their 
course  should  be  thoroughly  apprehended  : 

The  left  anterior  winding  line  in  the  hicomposite 
spine  passes  from  the  left  side  of  the  head,  through 
the  stemo-mastoid  to  the  left  upper  comer  of  the 


187 


sternum,  thence,  around  the  right  side  of  the  body 
to  the  left  hip  joint  in  rear. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  sternum  here  contains 
the  anterior  line  elements  of  the  ophidian  and 
third  S  S.  With  these  the  lines  of  the  neck  S^ 
are  fused  through  the  stemo-mastoid  muscles  and 
the  front  muscles  connecting  the  pelvis  and  the 
posterior  end  of  the  sternum.  These  having  re- 
spectively received  the  counteractions  of  the  two 
C  C  of  the  neck  and  third  S,  straighten  in  double 
twist  and  fuse  them  with  the  ophidian  S  in  the 
bicomposite  spine. 

The  riglit  anterior  winding  line  passes  from  the 
right  side  of  the  head,  through  the  sterno  mastoid 
muscle  to  the  right  upper  comer  of  the  sternum ,^ 
thence,  around  the  left  side  of  the  body  to  the  right 
hip  joint  in  rear.* 

The  right  posterior  winding  line  passes  from  the 
right  hip-joint,  in  front,  through  the  right  front  ab- 
dominal muscles  to  the  right  side  of  the  lower  end 
of  the  sternum,  thence,  around  the  body  by  the  left 
side  to  the  right  shoulder  blade,  thence,  by  the 
right  neck  shoulder  blade  muscles  to  the  back  of 
the  head. 

*In  man  the  connection  by  the  collar  bone  gives  an  action  for  each, 
anterior  line  on  the  corresponding  shoulder.  In  the  horse  the  levator 
humeri  furnishes  this  connection. 


188 


The  left  posterior  winding  line  passes  from  the 
left  hip  joint,  in  front,  through  the  left  front  ab- 
dominal muscles  to  the  left  side  of  the  lower  end  of 
the  sternum,  thence,  around  the  body  by  the  right 
side  to  the  left  shoulder  blade,  thence,  by  the  left 
neck  shoulder  blade  muscles  to  the  back  of  the 
head. 

Seventh — .The  centre  between  the  upper  and 
lower  lung  lobes  is  the  focus  of  force,  and  all  "  set- 
ting up  "  is  directed  to  centering  the  final  gather- 
ing on  this  point,  and  therefore  "  all  siraightening 
of  the  figure  is  concentrated  between  the  shoulder- 
blades,  and  not  at  the  small  of  the  back. 

The  seat  of  tlie  "cross  lines''  and  of  each 
ground  of  appui,  artificial  or  real,  then  would  be — 

For  the  ophidian  spine  between  the  upper  and 
lower  lung-lobes ;  having  for  its  artificial  ground  the 
sternum  and  the  eye  balls. 

For  the  composite  spine,  at  the  small  of  the  back, 
behind  the  diaphraghm ;  having  for  artificial 
ground  the  upper  end  of  the  sternum,  when  the 
anterior  winding  line  forms,  and  the  lower  end  when 
the  posterior ;  and,  in  a  measure,  taking  in  the  front 
of  the  pelvis  and  the  shoulder  sockets. 

For  the  neck  S,  at  the  junction  of  its  upper  and 
lower  C  C,  in  man  about  one  third  down  from  the 


189 


head  joint ;  having  for  artificial  ground  the  lower 
jaw,  and,  in  a  measure  the  shoulder  sockets. 

For  the  hicomposite  spine,  at  the  head  joint ;  hav- 
ing for  a  ground  the  terminations  of  the  posterior 
and  anterior  hmbs,  and  for  an  artificial  ground  the 
eyeballs. 

The  composite  spine,  in  forming  with  the  an- 
terior Hues,  acts  first  with  the  lower  C  of  the  neck, 
and  therefore  on  the  upper  end  of  the  sternum  as 
an  artificial  ground ;  in  forming  with  the  posterior 
Unes  it  acts  first  with  the  upper  C  of  the  third  S, 
and  therefore  on  the  lower  end  of  the  sternum  in 
that  relation. 

All  combine,  more  or  less,  on  the  eyeballs,  and 
finally  the  bicomposite  spine  joins  its  action  -with 
that  of  the  ophidian  and  these  points. 

Eighth. — As  has  been  before  noticed,  the  pressure 
of  each  point  of  application  principally  produces 
the  concave  under  it  (§21  and  following).  Thus 
the  anterior  (left)  concave  is  mainly  due  to  the 
pressure  of  the  left  anterior  point  of  appHcation,  and 
the  effect  of  its  line  if  carried  throughout  the  S 
would  be  to  make  it  wholly  concave  to  the  left. 

In  the  same  way,  the  right  posterior  pressure 
extended  would  form  the  whole  line  concave  to  the 
right. 

9 


190 


We  say  "  principally  produces,"  for  the  active 
working  of  the  (left)  anterior  winding  line  against 
the  stationary  position  of  the  posterior  end  of  the 
S,  has  begun  the  lower  part  of  the  rear  C,  before 
the  active  working  of  the  posterior  point  begins, 
and  the  virtual  effect  of  the  (right)  posterior  Hne 
is  similar  at  the  front  part  of  the  front  C.  The 
concavities,  however,  were  much  increased  by  the 
pressure  of  the  diagonal  points  of  application. 

It  is  the  extension  of  the  (left)  anterior  concave 
and  its  acceptance  by  the  (left)  posterior  point  of 
pressure,  and  the  extension  of  the  (right)  posterior 
concave  and  its  acceptance  by  the  (riglit)  anterior 
point  of  pressure,  which  brings  about  the  change 
of  curvatures,  or  for  halting  and  setting  up,  the  par- 
tial change  and  consequent  equalization. 

Ninth. — The  filling  of  either  upper  or  lower  lung 
lobe  brings  its  C  forward,  when,  of  course,  the 
other  C  of  the  S  passes  relatively  backwards.  Thus, 
when  the  upper  lung  lobes  fill,  the  lower  lung  lobes, 
and  with  them  the  hinder  Hmbs,  pass  to  the  rear ; 
when  the  lower  lung  lobes  fill,  the  hinder  limbs 
come  forward. 

Tenth. — The  inner  bearing  of  the  propellers  de- 
veloped on  the  convexes  includes  the  reactions  of 
an  anterior  windiag  Hne  and  its  diagonal  posterior. 


191 


and  when  equalized  produces  the  two  on  the  op- 
posite side. 

Eleventh. — Any  point  giving  off  a  bearing  moves 
in  the  opposite  direction  hy  reason  of  the  loss  of  it, 
and  vice  versa.  Thus,  when  the  right  shoulder 
blade  gives  off  inner  bearing  to  the  left,  the  former 
recovers  itself  on  the  outer  bearing.  This  will  be 
particularly  noticeable  in  setting-up  by  double  ac- 
tion (§  179). 

§  163.  Since  the  previously  formed  anterior  wind- 
ing line  is  the  normal  obstacle  to  the  direct  action 
of  the  posterior  point  of  apphcation,  this  anterior 
line  must  be  reduced  before  the  full  equahzation 
of  the  posterior  lines  can  have  place. 

In  beginning  with  the  (left)  anterior  hne,  the 
equalization  of  the  outer  bearings,  the  filling  of 
the  (right)  lower  lung  lobe,  and  the  reducing  of  the 
upper  convex  proceed  as  far  as  the  equalization  of 
the  .anterior  cross  line  ends  will  carry  them,  but, 
in  order  to  give  full  equalization  to  these  lines, 
there  remains  the  equahzing  of  the  inner  bearings. 

This  equahzing  of  the  inner  bearings  has  place 
first  (by  reflex  action  from  the  secondary  section 
of  the  posterior  line)  in  the  posterior  convex  ;  then, 
at  the  seat  of  the  secondary  section,  in  the  anterior 
convex,  by  dhect  action ;  and  these  being  carried 


192 


through,  the  posterior  point  of  application  is  so 
brought  into  connection  with  its  cross  hne  end  that 
it  can  bring  into  action  the  alternate  (left)  posterior 
point  of  apphcation,  and  cause  this  latter  to  produce 
the  filling  of  the  (left)  upper  lung  lobe  under  the 
left  true  ribs.  Finally,  movement  in  double  ac- 
tion gives  equal  traction  at  both  upper  corners  of 
the  sternum. 

Thus,  in  beginning  with  an  anterior  line,  the  fill- 
ing of  the  corresponding  posterior  lung  lobe  leads 
the  movement  up  to  a^  a'^  and  the  filling  of  the 
anterior  lung  lobe  takes  place  only  just  before  the 
action  in  b'^  b^. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  beginning  with  the  (right) 
posterior  line,  the  equaHzation  of  the  inner  bear- 
ings on  the  convexes  begins  the  movement ;  this  is 
succeeded  by  the  equalizing  of  the  upper  lung 
lobes,  and  of  the  posterior  points  of  application, 
and  this  by  the  neck  action,  forming  the  bicom- 
posite  spine  for  the  posterior  lines ;  finally,  the 
remaining  liaK  of  the  outer  bearing  for  the  anterior 
line  is  adjusted,  the  (right)  lower  lung  lobe  filHng, 
and  the  neck  action  for  the  anterior  line  forming 
the  bicomposite  spine,  prepares  all  for  a  movement 
in  double  action  which  gives  the  same  traction  on 
both  shoulder  blades  as  the  terminating  poitns  of 


193 


the  posterior  lines  ;  and,  on  the  upper  end  of  ster- 
num for  the  anterior  lines,  as  their  points  of  con- 
nection with  the  head. 

§  164.  We  subjoin  a  tabulated  view  of  the  move- 
ments of  setting  up  when  commencing  with  the 
ophidian  S.  It  will  not,  however,  in  practice  be 
necessary  to  follow  out  the  details.  We  shall  num- 
ber the  methods  proposed  for  setting  up  with  a 
view  to  after  reference. 


194 


[N'o.  1— (Left)  Anterioe  Line  Leading. 


Forcing  A  a^. 

Equalizes*  lower  (right) 
false  ribs  with  (left) 
ones  on  outer  bearings. 

Fills  (right)  lower 
lung  lobe.t 

Anterior  portion  of 
(left)  eye  muscle  turns 
outward  equalizing 

with  the  analogous 
portion  of  the  right  eye 
muscle. 

*When  the  word  equalize  is 
used,  it  denotes  "so  far  as  the 
movement  in  question  will  carry 
it."  The  final  movement  is  nec- 
essary to  complete  any  part. 

t  The  lung  lobes  draw  from 
each  other  collaterally— thus,  the 
right  lower  lobe  draws  from  the 
right  ui)per;  the  left  upper  from 
the  right  lower. 


Forcing  A  a'^ 

(Eight)   upper  C  (true 
rib)  cavity  reduced. 

''Left -right"  and 
'  *  right-left ' '  anterior 
cross-line  ends  (§  20) 
equalized  with  the  left- 
right  as  to  position 
(both  come  to  centre). 
This  takes  effect  be- 
tween the  upper  and 
lower  lung  lobes,  re- 
ducing the  right  upper 
lung  lobe  from  its  pos- 
terior part. 

Posterior  portions  of 
eye  muscles  equalize  on 
outer  bearings. 


195 


(Left)  Anterior  Line  Leading. 


Porcing  A  a*. 

Action  a*,  continuing 
spreads  to  third  S, 
equalizing  sides  of  pel- 
vis. 

The  consequent  move- 
ment of  the  hip-joint 
sockets  causes  an  equal- 
ization between  the  out- 
er bearings  of  the  left 
and  right  feet. 

The  (right)  lower 
lung  lobe  continues  to 
expand  and  the  (right) 
diaphragm  leaf  to 
spread. 

The  anterior  portions 
of  the  digastrics  equal- 
ize on  outer  bearings  ; 
the  (right)  digastric 
passing,  as  it  were,  over 
the  left. 


Forcing  A  a'^. 

Action  of  a'l  contin- 
uing, spreads  to  neck 
S. 

Anterior  cross-line 
ends,  still  keeping  their 
focus  between  upper 
and  lower  lung  lobes, 
equalize  the  upper  cor- 
ners of  the  sternum 
and  of  the  sides  of  the 
spine,  at  the  small  of 
the  back — diaphragm 
pillars — in  outer  bear- 
ings. 

The  posterior  por- 
tions of  the  digastrics 
equalize  on  outer  bear- 
ings.* 

*  The  arms  are  affected  by  this 
movement,  as  the  legs  were  by 
a2,  but  to  trace  their  motions,  as 
ill  the  trot,  will  too  much  com- 
plicate the  table.    . 


196 


(Left)  Anterior  Line  Leading. 


Forcing  A  a^. 

Action  of  a^  contin- 
uing, and  spreading 
through  a2,  equalizes 
the  hinder  limbs  on 
their  outer  bearings. 

Head  joint  condyles 
equalize,  in  the  thor- 
ough movement,  as  to 
their  posterior  end 
pressure. 


Forcing  A  a". 

Action  of  a'l  contin- 
uing and  spreading 
through  a'» 

The  front  C  C  of  the 
lung  tips  (§  112)  equal- 
ize as  the  movement 
turns  on  them. 

Anterior  cross-line 
ends — still  in  focus  be- 
tween the  upper  and 
lower  lung  lobes,  and 
further  moving  the  up- 
per corners  of  the  ster- 
num and  the  sides  of 
spine  at  the  small 
of  the  back  —  now 
equalize  the  lower  jaw 
articulations  on  their 
outer  bearings,  the 
(right)  articulation 

making  a  sort  of  lateral 
epicycloidal  movement 
on  the  (left)  one. 

The  head-condyles 
equalize  in  the  forward 
movement  across  (§  92) 
the  sockets  by  inner 
edge. 

All  being  thus  drawn 
up  to  the  head,  the  arm 
sockets  equalize  in  out- 
er bearing  from  right 
to  left.* 

♦This  action  at  the  shoulder 
joints,  it  will  be  seen,  changes  the 
direction  of  the  line  of  general 
pressm-e  (§  91),  which  up  to- 
this  point,  has  been  toward 
the  right ;  and  introduces,  by 
changing  it  incipiently  toward 
the  left,  the  posterior  line  equal- 
ization which  ends  in  the  head 
joint  sockets. 

The  eflect  of  this  on  the  head 
connection  is  to  bring  the  stress 
on  the  right  stcrno-mastoid  at 
right  upper  corner  of  the  ster- 
nvim. 


197 


(Left)  Anteriob  Line  Leading. 


Forcing  by  (  B  b'^. 

Induction.  ^ 

By  bringing  back  the 
"  left  -  right  anterior 
cross-line  end "  from 
its  displacement,  the 
* '  right  -  left  jDosterior 
end "  is  brought  into 
action,  and  by  but  a 
little  further  movement 
of  a^,  as  it  fills  the  right 
lower  lung  lobe,  the 
necessary  forcing,  in 
the  right  posterior  line, 
is  given,  and  the  reac- 
tion of  bi  begins  in  the 
posterior  C  of  the 
ophidian  S.  This 
equalizes  the  inner 
bearings  of  this  C,  after 
which  the  action  in  the 
secondary  section 
equalizes  the  inner 
bearings  of  the  anterior 
C. 

The  eye  muscles 
equalize  on  the  inner 
bearings — first,  by  re- 
action in  the  posterior 
portion ;  then  in  the 
anterior  portions  at  the 
** secondary  sections" 
of  the  posterior  line 
(§  25). 

9* 


Forcing  by  ^  B  b^ 

Induction.  \ 

The  right  lower  point 
of  application  now 
draws  directly,  and  at 
the  focus,  between  the 
lung  lobes,  equalizes 
the  posterior  cross-line 
ends  of  the  ophidian  S. 
The  eye  muscles 
equalize  on  the  inner 
bearing  at  their  pos- 
terior ends. 


198 


(Left)  Anteeior  Line  Leading. 


Forcing  by )  B  b'2. 

Induction.  \ 

The  action  of  a^  c  n- 
tinuing,  the  hip- joints 
are  equalized  on  the 
inner  bearings,  and 
with  the  secondary  sec- 
tion, the  loiver  end  of 
the  sternum  is  equal- 
ized on  its  inner  bear- 
ings against  the  outer 
bearings  A  a^  of  the 
upper  end.  Bj  this 
the  (right)  false  ribs 
gain  in  prominence, 
outward  and  forward, 
while  the  left  draw  in, 
as  they  fall  into  the 
traction  of  the  left  pos- 
terior winding-line. 

The  digastrics  equal- 
ize on  the  inner  bear- 
ing (the  right  one  gain- 
ing on  the  left),  the 
posterior  portion  first, 
then  the  anterior. 


Forcing  by )  B  b2. 

Induction.  \ 

The  action  of  a'^  con- 
tinuing, the  upper  left 
lung  lobe  fills  from  be- 
low. 

Digastrics  finish 
equalizing  on  inner 
bearing,  at  their  rear 
ends. 


199 


(Left)  Anteeior  Line  Leading. 


Porcing  by )  B  b'^. 

Induction.  ) 

Action  of  a'  continuing 
through  b'l,  equalizes 
the  hinder  limbs  on 
inner  bearings  by  the 
reactionary  movement 
with  lower  C  of  the 
neck  S,  and  as  b^^  takes 
effect  in  its  secondary 
section,  with  the  upper 
C  of  the  neck  S,  equal- 
izes the  shoulder  joints. 


Forcing  by )  B  b'. 

Induction.  \ 

Equalizes  the  lower  jaw 
articulations,  and  thus 
ends  with  the  stress  on 
the  right  sterno-mas- 
toid,  di'awing  on  right 
upper  corner  of  ster- 
num.* 

*  After  which  the  linishing  ad- 
justment, bringing  both  corners 
of  stei-num  into  eqiial  stress,  is 
made  in  "double  action." 


200 


165.  We  next  consider  the 
No.  2 — (Eight)  Posterior  Line  Leading. 


Forcing  B  b'^ 

The  first  action  felt  is 
in  the  secondary  sec- 
tion of  the  (right)  pos- 
terior line,  which  is 
that  of  the  (right)  true 
ribs,  forcing  their  move- 
ment and  pressing  to 
the  (left)  as  they  turn 
outward  and  back- 
ward ;*  but  the  first 
result  is  reflexion,  i.  e., 
the  lower  ribs  equalize 
their  inner  bearings, 
from  the  action  in  the 
secondary  section.  The 
true  ribs  then  equalize, 
as  the  secondary  sec- 
tion. 

By  the  first  move- 
ment the  (left)  lower 
false  rib  cavity  is  dim- 
inished ;  by  the  second 
the  (left)  upper  true 
rib  cavity  is  prepared 
for  enlargement. 

Eye  muscles  act  as  in 
§  164,  same  column. 

*To  prevent  mistakes,  we  re- 
peat what  was  before  said,  that 
if,  instead  of  forcing  the  old  line, 
the  forming  of  the  alternate  pos- 
terior line  lead  the  action,  this 
movement  is  forward. 


Forcing  B  b^ 

The  forcing  of  the  pos- 
terior line  next  brings 
about  an  equalization 
of  the  posterior  cross- 
line  ends,  8o  far  as  pos- 
sible; but  from  the  dis- 
placed ("  left-right  "> 
anterior  end  (§  32) 
holding  its  correspond- 
ing posterior  end  from' 
its  movement  to  the 
(right),  this  equaliza- 
tion is  performed  with 
a  decided  "  list  "  to  the 
left,  and  this  remains 
until  the  change  to  an- 
terior line  action  liber- 
ates the  displaced 
(left-right)  end. 

The  focus  of  the 
cross-line  end  action  is 
always  between  the  up- 
per and  lower  lung 
lobes. 

Eye  muscles  make 
their  inner  bearing 
equalization  at  their 
posterior  ends. 


201 


(Eight)  Posterior  Line  Leading. 


Forcing  B  b'^. 

The  action  of  h'^  con- 
tinuing the  reaction  in 
the  lower  C  of  the  com- 
posite spine,  and  the 
action  ia  its  upper  C, 
first  equalize  the  hip- 
joints  (by  the  move- 
ment of  the  pelvis)  on 
their  inner  bearings ; 
then  the  lower  end  of 
the  sternum,  with  which 
goes  the  inner  bearing 
of  the  digastrics,  first 
of  their  posterior,  then 
of  their  anterior  por- 
tion. 


Forcing  B  b^. 

Action  of  b^  continuing. 
Posterior  '  *  cross-line 
ends "  still  keeping 
their  focus  between  the 
upper  and  lower  lung 
lobes,  and  the  "list" 
of  the  general  line  to 
the  left  being  still 
maintained,  equalize  at 
the  small  of  the  back — 
diaphragm  pillars — fol- 
lowing which  the  (left) 
upper  lung  lobe  fills 
with  air  from  below, 
and  the  left  line  equal- 
ization begins  in  the 
neck-root  joint. 

The  posterior  por- 
tions of  the  digastrics 
equalize  on  inner  bear- 
ings at  their  posterior 
ends. 


202 


(Eight)  PosTERiOK  Line  Leading. 


forcing  of  Bb'3. 

The  pressures  contiu- 
ually  collecting  and 
swelling  at  the  anterior 
end  of  the  left  head 
joint  socket,  equalize 
with  the  similar  point 
of  the  right  socket,  so 
far  as  the  displaced  an- 
terior cross-line  end  al- 
lows. 

The  shoulder- joints 
■equalize,  the  right  giv- 
ing oj6f  to  the  left,  on 
which  latter  the  stress 
of  the  movement  de- 
cidedly comes. 


Forcing  B  b^. 

The  lower  C  C  of  the 
lung  tips  equalize  as 
the  head  joint,  with  the 
upper  C  of  the  neck  S, 
allows  the  turning  of 
the  outer  edge  of  its 
sockets.  * 

The  lower  jaw  artic- 
ulations equalize, 
changing  for  this  suc- 
cession of  movements 
(as  at  A  a^  the  shoul- 
ders did  for  the  former 
one)  the  general  line 
of  bearing.  But  it  is 
to  be  remembered  that 
all  the  lines  gained  are 
to  be  held,  and  that  the 
''induction  "  of  the  an- 
terior line  will  make  its 
own  alterations. 

*  The  pressure  of  the  left  socket 
should  diminish  as  it  equalizes 
with  the  right  (both  being  reflect- 
ed pressures) ;  but  the  displaced 
cross-line  end  still  holds  back  the 
movement. 


203 


(Right)  Posterior  Line  Leading. 


Forcing  by  [  A  a'. 
Induction.  \ 

Tlie  inner  bearing  be- 
longing to  tlie  right 
side  of  the  posterior  C 
C  and  to  the  left  side 
of  the  anterior  C  C,  has 
already  been  transfer- 
red to  them,  they  now 
receive  then*  portion  of 
the  outer  bearing. 

The  right  lower  lung 
lobe  fills. 

The  eye  muscles 
equaljze  in  front  on 
.outer  bearings. 


Forcing  by  ^  A  a'^ 

Induction.  ^ 

The  anterior  cross-line 
ends  equalize  between 
the  lung  lobes,  and  to 
a  certain  extent,  free 
the  posterior  ones,  to 
assume  the  positions 
from  which  they  have 
been  hitherto  restrain- 
ed. 

Eye  muscles  equalize 
in  their  rear  portions 
on  outer  bearings. 


204 


(Eight)  PoBTEKiOR  Line  Leading. 


Forcing  by  ?  A  a". 
Induction. ) 

Hip-joints  equalize  on 

outer  bearings. 

Digastrics      equalize 

in     front    portions    on 

outward  bearings. 


Forcing  by )  A  a'^. 
Induction. ) 

Upper  corners  of  ster- 
num equalize. 

Digastrics  on  outer 
bearing  at  posterior 
portions. 

Adjustment  of  cross- 
line  ends  at  small  of 
back — diaphragm  pil- 
lars. 


205 


(Eight)  PosTEBiOR  Line  Leading. 


Forcing  by )  A  a^. 

Induction. ) 

Actions  of  b'l  contin- 
uing. Equalization  of 
lower  jaw  articulations 
finished  from  b'. 

Hinder  limbs  equal- 
ized throughout. 


Forcing  by  ^  A  a'  3. 
Induction.  ^ 

As  the  right  head  con- 
dyles equalize,  the 
shoulder  joints  do  the- 
same.  The  right  shoul- 
der passing  outer  bear- 
ing to  the  left  one,  on 
which,  as  the  right  con- 
dyle comes  into  place, 
the  left  rear  neck  mus- 
cles draw,*  completing 
the  left  posterior  wind- 
ing line. 

*  Finishing  movement,by  which 
rear  neck  muscles  are  equalized,, 
is  made  in  "double  action." 


See  Appendix  II. 


206 


§  166.  We  have  given  the  table  for  setting-up, 
when  commencing  with  the  ophidian  S,  in  pretty 
full  detail,  but  as  was  said,  it  is  not  necessary  in 
practice  to  follow  these  details  mentally,  since  one 
produces  the  other,  if  allowed. 

Tico  chief  points  are  to  he  kept  in  mind,  viz.,  that 
the  movement  of  the  cross-line  ends  more  particularly 
changes  the  curvatures,  and  that  the  focus  of  this 
movement  must  he  maintained  hetween  the  upper  and 
loicer  lung  lohes,  that  is,  at  the  centre  of  the  ophidian 
spine.  Each  motion  being  brought  into  this  point, 
whether  from  the  small  of  the  back  or  from  either 
end  of  the  sternum,  etc. 

§  167.  No.  1.— For  "  setting-up "  with  the  {left) 
anterior  line  of  the  ophidian  S  leading,  as  in  the  first 
tahle,  it  seems  only  necessary  to  observe  the  fol- 
lowing points  : 

The  chin,  while  not  initiating  the  left  head  con- 
dyle movement,  must  be  kept  sufficiently  up,  so 
that  no  clamping  of  the  head  joint  in  the  opposite 
movement  shall  interfere  with  the  current  one. 

The  movement  being  once  initiated  from  a  "  point 
of  application  "  at  the  base  of  the  neck-root  joint 
on  the  (left)  side,  particular  attention  must  be  given 
to  the  two  fundamental  motions,  i.  e.,  the  filling  of 
the  right  lower  lung  lobe,  and  the  subsequent  equal- 


207 


izing  of  the  anterior  cross-line  ends  between  the 
upper  and  lower  hing  lobes. 

Next  comes  the  extension  of  these  to  the  pelvis 
and  hip  joints,  and  the  subsequent  equalizing  ac- 
tion at  the  upper  corners  of  the  sternum,  and  at 
the  small  of  the  back,  both  brought  to  bear  be- 
tween the  lung  lobes. 

Then  the  anterior  line  movement  proper  ends 
with  the  lower  jaw  equalization,  that  of  the  head 
condyles  with  "  the  thorough  movement,"  and  that 
of  the  shoulder  joint  initiating  the  inducing  of  the 
(right)  posterior  line  T\dth  the  continuance  of  the 
first  mentioned  fundamental  motions  of  the  an- 
terior and  the  change  of  the  general  line  of  press- 
ure. 

The  induction  of  the  equalization  of  the  posterior 
lines  comes,  first,  from  the  continued  filling  of  the 
(right)  lower  lung  lobe,  this  reduces  the  (left)  lower 
lung  lobe  cavity ;  and  next  from  the  continued 
action  in  equalizing  the  anterior  cross-line  ends, 
this  causes  the  equalization  of  the  posterior  ones, 
first,  between  the  lung  lobes,  then  at  the  small  of 
the  back,  and  at  the  lower  end  of  the  sternum, 
fills  the  (left)  upper  lung  lobe  which  reduces  the 
(left)  lower  lobe ;  lastly,  the  continued  filling  of 
the  right  lov/er  lung  lobe,  equalizes  the  shoulder 


208 


blades,  and  establishes  the  (left)  posterior  line  at 
the  left  shoulder  blade  (§  162  sixth) ;  and  the 
equalizing  of  the  cross-line  ends  brings  into  equal 
action  the  two  jaw  articulations,  the  inner  bearing 
passing  from  the  left  to  the  right,  and  leaving  the 
stress  of  the  head  condyle  movement  at  the  right 
upper  corner  of  the  sternum. 

§  168.  No.  2. — And  for  "  setting  up  "  with  the 
(right)  posterior  line  of  the  ophidian  S  leading. 
Since  the  rear  "  point  of  application  "  cannot,  at 
once,  exercise  its  direct  working,  as  did  that  of  the 
anterior  winding  Hne,  the  fundamental  points  are 
to  begin  the  influence  of  the  "  secondary  section  '* 
of  the  (right)  posterior  line  by  pressing  the  (right) 
true  ribs  to  the  left,  at  the  same  time  that  they 
rotate  outward  and  backward,"^  producing  the 
effect  of  equalizing  the  inner  bearing  first  in  the 
false  ribs  (posterior  C),  as  a  reflected  action  from 
the  upper  true  ribs,  on  which  follows  equalization 
of  this  bearing  at  the  true  ribs,  as  the  secondary 
section  proper  ;  subsequently  to  allow  the  direct 
action  of  the  (right)  posterior  "  point  of  appHca- 
tion "  between  the  upper  and  lower  lung  lobes, 
where,  for  the  ophidian  S,  it  takes  effect  more  es- 

*  Forward,  if  forming  the  alternate  posterior  line  first. 


209 


pecially  in  reducing  the  cavity  of  the  chest  under 
the  (left)  false  ribs. 

Next,  for  the  composite  S,  with  the  extension  of 
the  ophidian  S  movement,  comes  as  a  reflected 
action  the  equalization  of  the  inner  bearing  for  the 
pelvis  at  the  hip  joints ;  then,  as  the  proper  sec- 
ondary section,  the  filling  of  the  left  upper  lung 
lobe  from  below  ;  then,  for  the  posterior  "  point  of 
appKcation  "  the  inner  bearing  equalization  at  the 
small  of  the  back,  and  at  the  lower  end  of  the  ster- 
num, which  last  brings  the  focus  back  to  the  space 
between  the  upper  and  lower  lung  lobes. 

As  the  movement  by  the  right  posterior  winding  line 
takes  effect  for  the  bicomiDOsite  spine,  the  reflect- 
ed secondary  section  action  equahzes  the  hind-legs 
on  the  inner  bearings ;  the  secondary  section  proper 
the  shoulder  blades ;  and  the  drawing  of  the  (right) 
posterior  point  of  application  the  lower  jaw  articu- 
lations ;  during  which  the  head  joint  sockets  equal- 
ize so  far  as  they  can,  for  the  general  line  still  in- 
clines to  the  (left).  The  whole  turns  on  the  upper 
C  0  of  the  lung  tips.  The  equahzation  of  the  lower 
jaw  articulations  changes  the  movement  for  the 
induction  of  action  by  the  anterior  winding  line. 

The  induced  equahzation  of  the  lower  ribs  on 
their    outer  bearings   (the    secondary  section    of 


210 


the  anterior  line),  fills  the  right  lower  lung  lobe ; 
then  the  action  of  the  primary  section,  as  the  an- 
terior cross  line  ends  equalize  between  the  lung 
lobes,  begins  to  release  the  (right-left)  posterior 
cross-line  end  and  the  general  Hne  of  the  body 
gains  toward  the  (right). 

As  the  action  of  the  secondary  section  extends 
to  the  composite  spine  (the  right  lung  continuing  its 
filling),  the  right  hip  joint  obtains  a  more  equal 
bearing ;  as  that  of  the  primary  extends,  the  left 
upper  lung  lobe  fills  more  completely,  and  is  nearly 
fully  expanded  as  the  equalization  of  the  anterior 
cross  line  ends  at  the  small  of  the  back  and  the 
upper  end  of  the  sternum,  releases  the  posterior 
hne  ends  at  the  small  of  the  back  and  the  lower 
end  of  the  sternum,  aU  again  centering  between  the 
lung  lobes. 

The  bicomposite  spine  movement  equahzes  for 
its  secondary  section  the  bearings  of  the  hinder 
limbs,  for  the  cross  lines  the  lower  jaw  articula- 
tions, and  for  its  final  turn  the  shoulder  blades ; 
leaving  a  final  stress  from  the  back  of  the  head  on 
the  left  shoulder-blade,  which  is  to  be  adjusted 
with  the  other  by  a  shght  movement  in  double  ac- 
tion. 

§  169.  No.  3— The  "forcing  of  the  winding  lines" 


211 


may,  perliaps,be  moTe  advantageously  carried  out 
on  the  pacing  movement  than  on  that  of  the  trot 
just  described.  If  we  begin  with  the  anterior  lines 
of  the  bicomposite  spine,  i.  e.,  the  pace  in  progression, 
the  successive  motions  would  be  as  follows  : 

First. — The  movement  of  the  (left)  head  condyle 
equalizing  with  the  right  at  its  posterior  end, 
brings  on  the  equahzation  of  the  lower  jaw  articu- 
lations, the  (right)  articulation  being  brought 
(§  166)  with  a  sort  of  lateral  epicycloidal  movement 
over  the  (left) ;  thence  the  movement  extends  to  the 
equalization  of  the  hind-limbs  on  the  outer  bearing; 
thence,  passing  more  inward  to  the  equalization  of 
the  secondary  section  of  the  anterior  line  in  the 
composite  spine,  viz.,  the  pelvis,  the  false  ribs,  the 
filling  of  the  (right)  lower  lung  lobe;  the  secondary 
section  in  the  ophidian  spine  bringing  the  action 
between  the  upper  and  lower  lung  lobes. 

Second. — The  equalization  of  the  shoulder-blades 
on  the  outer  bearings  as  the  head  condyles  equalize 
on  their  cross  joint  movement,  brings  on  the  equal- 
ization of  the  other  primary  sections  in  the  succes- 
sive spines.  The  sternum  comers  and  the  small 
of  the  back  are  effected  by  the  anterior  cross-lines 
of  the  composite  spine,  and,  finally,  the  equaliza- 
tion of  these  end  between  the  upper  and  lower 
lung  lobes. 


212 


Third. — As  the  head  joint  sockets  begin  their 
equahzation  at  the  forward  ends,  the  shoulder- 
joints  would  equalize  as  representing  the  second- 
ary section  of  the  posterior  line  action,  in  the 
bicomposite  spine ;  but  the  "  reflected  action " 
which  takes  place  in  the  hinder-Hmbs  must  first  be 
carried  out  by  their  equalization  on  the  inner 
bearing ;  then  succeeds  the  similar  equahzation  of 
the  shoulder-joints  ;  next,  for  the  composite  spine, 
comes  that  of  the  false  ribs,  then  of  the  true  ribs, 
and  the  filUng  of  the  (left)  upper  lung  lobe,  from 
the  left  lower ;  finally,  the  equalizing  of  this  section 
in  the  ophidian  S. 

Fourth. — The  head  joint  sockets  equalize  on  their 
outer  edges  ;  the  lower  jaw  articulations  follow, 
bringing  on  the  equahzation  of  the  posterior  cross- 
line  ends  in  succession ;  the  lower  end  of  the 
sternum  and  the  small  of  the  back  for  the  compos- 
ite S ;  the  working  between  the  upper  and  lower 
lung  lobes  for  the  ophidian. 

§  170.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  lower  jaiv  ar- 
ticulations go  with  the  posterior  C  C  in  each  ca^e  ;  the 
shoulder-blades  tvith  the  anterior  C  G ;  that  is,  the 
lower  jatv  goes  tvith  the  secondary  section  of  the  an- 
terior lines,  and,  with  the  primary  section  of  the  poste- 
rior, whilethe  shoulder-blades  go  with  the  secondary  sec- 
tions of  the  posterior,  and  the  primary  of  the  anterior. 


213 


It  will  be  also  observed  that  the  S  S  were  carried 
out  by  halves. 

§  171.  No.  4. — If  for  setting-up  we  begin  with  the 
posterior  lines  of  the  bicomposite  spine  in  the  retro- 
gressive pacing  action,  the  successive  motions  would 
be  as  follows  :  First. — For  the  bicomposite  spine, 
the  hinder  Umbs  in  reflected  action,  then  the 
shoulder-blades  as  the  proper  secondary  section  of 
the  posterior  line ;  the  head-joint  sockets  equalize 
at  their  anterior  ends,  next,  for  the  composite 
spine,  the  false  ribs ;  then  the  true  ribs  and  filling 
of  the  left  upper  lung  lobe ;  lastly,  equalizing  of 
this  secondary  section  in  the  ophidian  S.  Second. — 
Head-joint  sockets  equalize  on  their  outer  edges, 
the  lower  jaw  articulations  equalize  on  the  inner 
bearing,  succeeded  in  the  several  spines  by  the  equal- 
izing of  the  posterior  cross-line  ends  as  the  (right) 
posterior  point  of  apphcation  draws.  Third. — 
The  head  condyle  equalization  at  the  rear  ends,  and 
for  the  bicomposite  spine,  the  lower  jaw  articula- 
tions equalize  on  the  outer  bearing,  then  the  hinder 
limbs  ;  for  the  composite  spine,  the  pelvis,  false 
ribs  and  filling  of  the  (right)  lower  lung  lobe,  ac- 
tion between  upper  and  lower  lung  lobes.  Fourth. — 
Head  condyles  equalize  on  their  cross  joint  move- 
ment, equalization  of  shoulder-blades  for  bicom- 
10 


214 


posite  spine ;  next,  the  upper  end  of  sternum,  small 
of  back ;  and  between  lung  lobes  for  composite  and 
ophidian  spines. 

§  172.  We  have  gone  through  the  details  of 
equalizing  the  tractions  of  the  winding  lines  by 
forcing  beyond  their  hmits  those  akeady  formed, 
this  seeming  the  best  way  of  explaining  the  sub- 
ject ;  but  often,  perhaps  generally,  the  most  prac- 
tical method  for  "setting-up"  is  forming  the  alter-^ 
nates  and  discharging  in  their  "wake"  the  old  line& 
of  the  composite  and  ophidian  spines,  at  the  same 
time  limiting  the  action  to  these  spines,  which  will 
allow  of  equahzing  each  Hue  after  its  formation.  * 
This  being  done,  next  forming  successively,  in  the 
same  way,  the  alternate  lines  of  the  bicomposite 
spine,  discharging  the  old  ones  and  equalizing  the 
new  ones. 

No.  5.  To  equaHze  the  winding  lines,  the  forma- 
tion of  the  (right)  alternate  anterior  line  leading.  As 
has  been  previously  remarked,  the  bearing  of  the 
general  line  and  the  rear  and  front  direction  of  the 
leading  moving  points  wiU  be  reversed  from  those 
of  the  already  given  examples,  because  these  are 
now  those  of  the  new  line  forming  and  drawing, 

*  Did  the  movement  extend  through  the  neck-root  joint  to  the  bicom- 
posite spine  we  should  have  the  full  alternates. 


215 


instead  of  those  of  the  old  Ime  forcing  its  actions 
and,  so  to  speak,  pushing.     (§  162.     Fifth.) 

As  in  all  cases,  the  movement  maybe  begun  at  var- 
ious points.    We  shall  commence  with  the  (left)  eye. 

First. — With  the  (left)  eye  muscle  turning  out- 
ward in  its  arderior  portion,  commence  the  forma- 
tion of  the  alternate  (right)  anterior  hne  in  its  sec- 
ondary sections,  viz  :  The  filling  of  the  (right)  lung 
lobe,  followed  by  the  reduction  of  the  left  false-rib 
concavity  and  the  increased  outer  bearing  at  the 
(right)  hip-socket,  followed  by  a  reduction  of  the 
(left)  hip-socket.  Then,  with  the  outward  turn  of 
the  (left)  eye  muscle,  in  its  posterior  portion,  com- 
mence the  formation  of  the  primary  sections,  viz. : 
the  gaining  between  the  (right)  lower  and  left 
upper  lung  lobes  of  the  (right-left)  cross-Une  end 
to  the  (left),  followed  by  reduction  of  the  position 
of  the  (left-right)  end  to  the  (right) ;  gaining  of  the 
same  point  at  the  small  of  the  back  to  the  right 
followed  by  the  reduction  of  the  (left-right)  point 
to  the  right,^  a  similar  gain  and  reduction  between 

*  In  many  cases,  from  the  great  displacement  of  the  left-right  anterior 
cross-line  end  to  the  left,  its  restoration  is  the  main  feature.  The 
right  side  at  the  small  of  the  back  straightening  its  incurvation  toward 
the  left  in  a  very  marked  degree.  It  may  be  remarked  here,  that  the 
new  points  rise  above  the  old  ones,  and  also  pass  (in  man)  in  front  of 
them,  corresponding  to  the  passage  of  the  concaves  under  the  convexes 
in  the  snake  (§  60). 


216 


the  (right  and  left)  upper  corners  of  the  sternum.  - 
Continuing  the  drawing  will  equalize  the  whole. 

Second. — With  the  (left;  eye  muscle  turning  in- 
ward, first,  in  its  rear  portion,  by  reflected  action  ; 
lastly,  in  its  anterior  portion,  by  proper  action,  al- 
low the  alternate  (left)  posterior  winding-line  to 
form  for  the  secondary  sections,  viz.,  by  bringing 
the  inner  bearing  on  the  (right)  false  ribs,  which 
implies  a  reduction  of  the  cavity  under  the  (left) 
false  ribs  (§  39  and  note),  by  taking  the  inner 
bearing  from  the  (left)  hip  joint  to  the  (right) ;  by 
filhng  the  (left)  upper  lung  lobe  from  below  as  the 
lower  (left)  true  ribs  turn  outward.  Then  for  the 
primary  section,  the  drawing  of  the  alternate  ante- 
rior (right-left)  cross-line  end  will  bring  the  alter- 
nate posterior  (left-right)  end  into  action ;  discharg- 
ing the  old  point  between  the  lung  lobes ;  at  the 
small  of  the  back ;  and  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
sternum. 

Third. — From  the  bicomposite  alternate  (right) 
anterior  Ime,  first,  on  the  right  lower  jaw  articula- 
tion, then  on  the  left  shoulder  blade,  discharging 
the  old  fine — equalize.  Then  the  bicomposite 
alternate  (left)  posterior  line,  on  the  left  shoulder 

*  It  is  often  necessary  to  equalize  somewhat  the  small  of  the  back  and 
corners  of  the  sternum  before  the  movement  between  tlie  lung  lobes 
can  be  effected. 


217 


blade,  then  on  the  right  lower  jaw  articulation, 
discharging  the  old  hne — equalize. 

§  173.  Remarks. — As  the  alternate  Hne  is  the 
"new  line  "  of  the  previous  methods,  the  "  anterior 
line  leading  "  movements  end  here,  as  there,  with 
a  stress  on  the  same  point,  viz.,  the  right  upper 
corner  of  the  sternum. 

In  all  these  movements,  where  the  anterior  line 
leads,  the  order  of  succession  for  the  cross-line 
ends  in  the  composite  spine  is  small  of  the 
back,  upper  corners  of  sternum  for  the  anterior 
ends ;  small  of  back,  lower  end  of  sternum,  for 
the  posterior  ends.  This  is  a  necessary  conse- 
quence of  the  throughout  continued  filUng  of  the 
(right)  lower  lung  lobe,  as  the  conspicuous  foun- 
dation of  the  movement.  On  the  other  hand, 
for  the  leading  of  the  posterior  line  where  the  in- 
ward pressure  of  the  (right)  upper  true  rib  convex, 
whether  forward  or  to  the  rear,  is  the  foundation 
of  the  movement,  the  succession  is  necessarily 
lower  end  of  sternum,  small  of  back  for  the  pos- 
terior ends ;  upper  end  of  sternum,  small  of  back 
for  the  anterior  ends. 

§  174.  No.  6. — To  equalize  the  winding  lines,  the 

formation  of  the  alternate  [left)  posterior  line  leading. 

As  we  cannot  begin  with  a  rear  point  of  apj^hca- 


218 


tion  (§167),  and,  therefore,  not  with  its  representa- 
tive, the  rear  point  of  the  (left)  eye  muscle ;  and, 
as  we  cannot  develope  the  secondary  section  of 
the  alternate  posterior  line  without  some  corres- 
ponding point  d'appni,  in  the  old  line,  we  take 
the  right  upper  ribs  as  this  point  d'appui,  and 
begin  by  forming  against  it,  the  secondary  section 
of  the  alternate  (left)  posterior  winding  Hne  ;  first 
in  its  "  reflected  "  action  of  drawing  the  inner  bear- 
ing from  the  (left)  false  to  the  (right)  false  rib  ar- 
ticulation ;  and,  then,  in  its  "  proper  "  action  from 
the  (right)  true  to  the  (left)  true  ribs. 

It  will  be  remembered  (§171),  that  the  move- 
ment of  every  point  is,  now,  the  reverse  of  what 
it  was  in  the  forcing  of  the  old  Hne. 

We  shall  make  the  description  of  this  movement 
in  more  general  terms  than  have  been  employed 
heretofore. 

In  the  composite  spine.  First. — Pressing  the  upper 
part  of  the  (right)  upper  ribs  forward  and  to  the 
(left),  an  appui  is  taken  on  that  action  in  the 
course  of  the  alternate  (left)  posterior  line,  which 
will,  for  the  secondary  section  (by  reaction),  draw 
the  inner  bearing  from  the  (left)  false  ribs  to  the 
right  ones,  then  (by  proper  action),  that  of  the 
right  true  ribs  to  the  left  ones,  and  begin  to  fill  the 


219 


left  upper  lung  lobe  in  its  lower  portion  as  the 
left  tine  ribs  take  the  inner  bearing.* 

Next,  for  the  primary  section.  Developing  the 
position  of  the  alternate  (left -right)  posterior  cross- 
line  end  discharge  the  old  (right-left)  posterior — 
straightening  the  right  side  of  the  spine  at  the 
«maU  of  the  back,  and  releasing  the  traction  on  the 
left  side  of  the  lower  end  of  the  sternum,  t 

Second. — The  continuation  of  the  movement  brings 
on  a  retraction  of  the  (right)  upper  point  of  appli- 
cation for  the  ophidian  spine ;  the  filling  of  the 
right  lower  lung  lobe  for  the  secondary  section  of 
the  anterior  line.  Then,  for  the  primary  section, 
the  formation  of  the  new,  and  discharge  of  the 
old-Hne,  between  the  right  and  left  upper  corners  of 
the  sternum,  and  the  same  for  the  two  sides  of  the 
small  of  the  back. 

In  the  biGomposite  spine.  First. — The  left  shoulder- 
blade  taking  from  the  right  shoulder-blade,  then, 
ihe  right  jaw  articulation  from  the  left  one  for  the 
alternate  posterior  line. 

Second. — And,  for  the  whole,  lastly.  The  right  jaw 
articulation  taking  from  the  left  one  ;  then,  the 
left  shoulder-blade  taking  from  the  right  shoulder- 

♦  This  lung  lobe  does  not  fill  until  the  preceding  movements  have 
vbeen  well  carried  out. 

t  This  traction  §  39  belongs  to  the  old  (right)  posterior  winding  line. 


220 


blade  for  the  alternate   anterior"  line;  the  whole- 
ending  with  a  stress  on  the  (left)  shoulder-blade. 

These  last  bicomposite  actions  move  the  neck- 
root  joint  and  bring  the  focus  of  force  to  the  space 
between  the  upper  and  lower  lung  lobes. 

§  175.  Nos.  9  and  10.— §  177.  The  forming  of  the 
alternate  lines  in  the  pace  developement,  followed 
by  their  equalization  after  the  discharge  of  the 
old  lines. 

No.  9 — For  the  (right)  anterior  alternate  line  lead- 
ing, we  have,  frst,  the  attempt  at  rotation  back- 
ward and  inward  of  the  (right)  head  condyle  ;  then 
the  incipient  convex  on  the  (right)  of  the  lower  C 
of  the  neck  S,  followed  by  the  discharge  of  the  (Jefl:) 
upper  corner  of  the  sternum  ;  then  the  formation 
on  the  outer  bearing,  for  the  (right)  jaw  articula- 
tion, followed  by  the  discharge  of  the  left  articula- 
tion, then  the  developement  of  the  (right-left)  an- 
terior cross-line  end  in  its  position,  and  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  (left-right)  followed  by  the  formation 
for  the  left  shoulder-blade  on  the  outer  bearing, 
and  reduction  of  the  right. 

For  the  (left)  posterior  alternate  Hne  hy  induction  ; 
first,  inner  bearing  formed  on  the  right  of  the  lower 
C  of  neck  S  (reaction) ;  reduction  of  left  side ; 
inner  bearing  on  left  of  upper  C  (proper  action)  ;; 


221 


reduction  of  riglit  side ;  formation  of  left  shoulder- 
blade  on  inner  bearing ;  reduction  of  right  shoul- 
der-blade; then  the  development  of  (left-right) 
posterior  cross-line  end,  and  reduction  of  the  (right- 
left)  ;  followed  by  the  formation  for  the  (right)  jaw 
articulation  on  the  inner  bearing,  and  reduction  of 
the  (left).  Finally,  drawing  of  (right)  sterno-mas- 
toid. 

§  176.  No.  10. — For  the  (left)  alternate  posterior 
line  leading.  The  most  marked  points  seem  to  be 
the  forming  pressure  of  (right)  socket  gaining  its 
pressure  at  the  front  part  of  its  condyle — and  the 
reduction  of  the  pressure  of  the  (left)  socket,  as  if 
it  were  separating  from  its  condyle. 

For  tliis  (left)  posterior  alternate  hue  leading  by 
forming  pressure  of  the  (right)  socket,  we  have, 
first,  the  inner  bearing  on  the  (right)  side  of  the 
lower  C  of  the  neck  S  (reaction) ;  reduction  of  left 
side  ;  inner  bearing  on  left  of  upper  C  (proper 
action)  &c.  &c.,  being  the  repetition  of  No.  9 ,  ex- 
cepting that  the  posterior  line  comes  first  and  de- 
pends not  on  induction,  but  on  the  forming  socket- 
pressure  ;  and  that  the  anterior  line  comes  second 
by  induction,  working  from  the  right  lower  jaw 
articulation  as  the  posterior  line  continues  its  ac- 
tion. 

10^ 


222 


Nos.  7,  8, 9  and  10  run  veiy  much  into  each  other. 
In  fact,  m  9  and  10  the  equahzation  of  the  compo- 
site spine  follows  on  the  first  part  of  the  second 
set  of  lines  in  action  whichever  this  may  be.  Thus, 
in  No.  10,  so  soon  as  the  left  shoulder-blade  moves 
in  connection  with  the  lower  C  of  the  neck,  the 
right  shoulder-blade  steadies  the  upper  C  of  the 
composite  spine  for  its  reactionary  action  in  the 
lower  ribs. 

Practical  Setting-up. 

§  177.    Of  the  EIGHT    METHODS    OF  "  SETTING-UP," 

which  have  just  been  enumerated,  the  bases  may 
be  described  as  follows,  and  with  the  descriptions 
already  given  we  shall  refer  more  particularly  to 
the  present  section  for  jjractical  explanation.  The 
process  of  exhausting  and  filling  the  lung  lobes 
will  be  discussed  more  fully  under  "  setting-up 
with  double  action ;"  but  it  may  be  remarked 
here  that  the  mouth  should  be  kept  closed,  the  air 
passing  out  through  the  nostiil  collateral  with 
the  exhausting  lobe,  and  entering  by  the  nostril 
collateral  with  the  filling  lobe.  It  will  not,  how- 
ever, be  necessary  to  attend  to  the  latter  process, 
as  a  good  part  of  the  filling  will  come  from  trans- 
fer from   an  upper  to   a  collateral  lower  lobe,  or 


223 


Tice  versa.  The  paragraph  conchiding  No.  1  ap- 
pHes  with  obvious  modifications  to  all  the  num- 
bers. 

We  have  taken  no  notice  of  the  movement  of 
the  head  condyles  or  eye  muscles,  as  they  will  ad- 
just of  themselves. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  upper  lobes 
fill  or  exhaust  from  below,  the  lower  lobes  from 
above. 

No.  1. — Forcing  the  anterior  line  in  the  trot- 
ting movement.  (1.)  Exliausting  the  lower  (left) 
lung  lobe  until  this  action  brings  on  the  filHng 
of  the  lower  (right)  lobe.  (2.)  By  induction  from 
(1.)  and  after  allowing  the  necessary  connections 
of  the  neck  and  pelvis  to  adjust  themselves. 
Exhausting  the  upper  (right)  lung  lobe,  until  this 
brings  on  the  fiUing  of  the  upper  (left)  lobe,  and 
fresh  adjustment  of  the  pelvis  and  neck. 

The  movement  would  be  begun  by  drawing  back 
the  left  upper  part  of  the  chest  near  the  first  rib. 
As  to  the  adjustments,  these  will  be — (1.)  the 
(left)  lower  jaw  articulation  giving  off  its  inner 
bearing  as  the  lower  (left)  lung,  exhausts,  and  the 
(right)  jaw  articulation  taking  outer  bearing  as 
the  lower  (right)  lobe  fills.  (2.)  The  (right)  shoul- 
der joint  giving   off  inner  bearing  as  the  upper 


224 


(right)  lung  lobe  exhausts,  and  the  (left)  shoulder 
joint  taking  outer  bearing  as  the  upper  (left)  lung 
lobe  fills.  Consequent  on  the  exhaustion  of  the 
lower  C  of  the  right  lung  tip*  and  filling  of  the 
lower  C  of  the  left,  being  the  final  action,  the 
right  sterno-mastoid  then  draws  from  above  on 
the  right  upper  corner  of  the  sternum. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  these  movements  the 
lower  (left)  false  rib  articulations  cross  the  central 
line  of  the  body ;  both  they  and  the  (left)  hip  joint 
passing  in  front,  across  the  body  to  the  (right)  and 
falling  outward,  as  they  give  off  inner  bearing.  The 
(right)  true  ribs  and  right  shoulder  blade  pass 
relatively  to  the  (left),  beginning  below,  but  the 
uppermost  true  rib  is  not  adjusted  until  the  body 
S  being  virtually  carried  through  its  movement, 
the  right  shoulder  joint  moves  with  the  neck  S, 
completely  separating  the  sterno-mastoids  in  front. 

No.  2. — Forcing  the  posterior  line  in  the  trot- 
ting movement.  (1.)  Exhausting  the  upper  (right) 
lung  lobe,  until  this  action  brings  on  the  filling  of 
the  upper  (left)  lobe.  (2)  By  induction  from  (1)^ 
and  after  allowing  the  pelvis  and  neck  connections 
to  adjust  themselves.     Exhatistiug  the  lower  (left 

*  The  upper  C  of  each  lung  tip  goes  with  its  diagonal  lower  lung 
lobe ;  the  lower  C  with  the  upper  lobe,  to  which  it  is  attached. 


225 


lung  lobe,  until  this  brings  on  the  filling  of  the- 
lower  (right)  lobe  and  fresh  adjustments  of  the 
neck  and  pelvis. 

Since  the  posterior  point  of  application  cannot, 
at  first,  act  directly,  the  movement  would  be  be- 
gun by  drawing  backward  the  (rightj  upper  part 
of  the  chest,  near  the  first  rib,  but  at  the  same 
time  allowing  this  to  press  inward,  to  accommo- 
date the  reflected  action  in  the  (left)  false  ribs. 
As  to  the  adjustments,  these  will  be  (1)  the 
(right)  shoulder  joint  giving  off  its  inner  bearing 
as  the  upper  (right)  lobe  exhausts,  and  the  left 
shoulder  joint,  taking  outer  bearing  as  the  upper 
(left)  lobe  fills.  (2.)  The  (left)  jaw  articulation 
giving  off  inner  bearing,  as  the  left  lower  lung  lobe 
exhausts,  and  the  (right)  jaw  articulation  taking 
outer  bearing  as  the  lower  (right)  lobe  fills.  Con- 
sequent on  the  exhaustion  of  the  upper  C  of  the 
(right)  lung  tip  and  filling  of  the  upper  C  of  the 
(left)  lung  tip  being  the  final  action,  the  left  head 
muscles  then  draw  from  above  on  the  left  shoulder 
blade. 

No.  3. — Forcing  the  anterior-  line  in  the  pacing 
movement.  (1.)  Begins  with  the  (left)  jaw  artic- 
ulation giving  off  inner  bearing  with  exhaustion 
of  lower  (left)  lung  lobe.     The  movement  of  the 


226 


neck  S  corresponding  to  this,  brings  around  the 
right  shoulder  joint,  giving  off  inner  bearing  with 
exhaustion  of  the  upper  (right)  lung  lobe.  (2.) 
The  neck  motion  continuing,  the  (right)  jaw  artic- 
ulation takes  outer  bearing  with  filHng  of  lower 
(right)  lung  lobe,  and  the  neck  movement  still 
continuing,  the  left  shoulder  joint  takes  outer 
bearing  with  filling  of  upper  left  lung  lobe.  Fi- 
nally, although  differently  from  the  trot,  the  draw- 
ing of  the  right  sterno-mastoid  is  in  advance  of 
the  equahzation  of  the  lung  tips,  yet,  consequent 
on  the  exhaustion  of  the  lower  C  of  the  (right) 
lung  tip,  and  filling  of  the  lower  C  of  the  left, 
being  the  final  movement,  the  drawing  of  the  upper 
(right)  corner  of  the  sternum  is  from  above. 

No.  4. — Forcing  the  posterior  line  in  the  pacing 
movement.  (1).  Begins  with  the  (right)  shoulder 
joint  giving  off  inner  bearing  with  exhaustion  of 
the  upper  (right)  lung  lobe.  The  movement  of  the 
neck  8  corresponding  to  this,  brings  around  the 
(left)  jaw  articulation,  giving  off  inner  bearing  with 
the  exhaustion  of  the  lower  (left)  lung  lobe.  (2).  The 
neck  motion  continuing,  the  (left)  shoulder  joint 
takes  outer  bearing  with  the  filling  of  the  upper 
(left)  lung  lobe,  and  the  neck  movement  still  contin- 
uing, the  (right)  jaw  articulation  takes  outer  bear- 


227 


ing  with  the  filling  of  the  lower  (right)  lung  lobe. 
Finally,  the  drawing  of  the  (left)  side  back  mus- 
cles of  the  neck,  moving  in  advance  of  the  equaliza- 
tion of  the  lung  tips,  consequent  on  this  and  on  the 
exhaustion  of  the  upper  C  of  the  (right)  lung  tip, 
and  filling  of  upper  C  of  the  (left)  lung  tip,  being 
the  final  action,  the  drawing  on  the  (left)  shoulder- 
blade  is  from  above. 

No.  5. — Forming  first  the  alternate  anterior  line 
in  the  trotting  movement.  (1).  Filling  the  lower 
(right)  lung  lobe.  Exhaustiag  the  lower  (left) 
lobe.  (2).  Filling  the  upper  (left)  lobe.  Exhaust- 
ing the  upper  (right)  lobe. 

The  jaw  articulations  and  shoulder  joints,  as 
before,  follow  the  lung  movement,  the  (right)  jaw 
articulation  taking  outer  bearing,  then  the  (left)  one 
giving  off  inner  bearing.  The  (left)  shoulder  taking 
outer  bearing,  the  right  shoulder  gi\^ng  off  inner 
bearing.  Then,  as  the  lung  tips  equalize,  the  jaw, 
and  lastly  the  shoulders,  take  a  final  adjustment, 
ending  with  a  drawing  at  the  right  upper  comer 
of  the  sternum,  which,  instead  of  coming  as  in  No. 
1,  from  above,  by  the  sterno-ma<stoid,  now  comes 
from  below,  along  the  right  side  of  the  sternum. 

No.  6. — Forming  first  the  alternate  posterior  line 
in  the  trotting  movement.     (1).  Filling  the  upper 


228 


(left)  lung  lobe.  Exhausting  the  upper  (right)  lobe. 
(2).  Filling  the  lower  (right)  lung  lobe.  Exhaust- 
ing the  lower  (left)  lobe. 

Referring  to  the  first  part  of  the  conclud- 
ing paragraph  of  No.  2.  (1).  The  (left)  shoul- 
der joint  takes  an  outer  bearing  as  the  upper  (left) 
lobe  fills,  and  the  (right)  shoulder  joint  gives  off 
inner  bearing  as  the  upper  (right)  lobe  exhausts. 
(2).  The  (right)  jaw  articulation  takes  an  outer 
bearing  as  the  lower  (right)  lobe  fills,  and  the  left 
jaw  articulation  gives  off  inner  bearing  as  the  lower 
(left)  lobe  exhausts.  As  the  lung  tips  equalize,  the 
jaw,  and  lastly  the  shoulders,  take  a  final  adjust- 
ment, ending  with  a  drawing  on  the  left  shoulder- 
blade  from  below,  instead  of,  as  in  No.  2,  from 
above. 

No.  7. — Forming  first  the  alternate  anterior  line  in 
the  pacing  movement.  (1).  Lower  (right)  and,  suc- 
ceeding this,  the  upper  (left)  lung  lobe  fills.  (2). 
Lower  (left)  and,  succeeding  this,  the  upper  (right) 
lung  lobe  exhausts. 

The  head  being  raised,  the  (right)  lower  jaw  ar- 
ticulation commences  the  movement,  taking  on 
outer  bearing,  as-  following  the  movement  of  the 
jaw — the  (right)  lower  lung  lobe  fills.  Next,  the 
left  shoulder-blade,  which  meantime  must  not  be 


229 


kept  from  following  the  general  movement  of  the 
neck,  takes  on  outer  bearing  as  the  (left)  upper 
lung  lobe  fills.  The  (left)  jaw  articulation  gives  off 
inner  bearing  as  the  (left)  lower  lung  lobe  exliausts,. 
and  the  left  hip  joint  is  released.  The  (right) 
sterno-mastoid  now  drawls  at  the  (right)  upper  cor- 
ner of  the  sternum.  Finally,  the  (right)  shoulder 
joint  gives  off  inner  bearing  as  the  right  true  ribs 
adjust  themselves,  and  the  force  along  the  (right) 
side  of  the  sternum  coming  from  below,  unites 
mth  that  of  the  right  stemo-mastoid  in  making 
the  tractions  collateral. 

No.  8. — Forming  first  the  alternate  posterior  hue 
in  the  pacing  movement.  (1).  Upper  (left)  and,  suc- 
ceeding this,  the  lower  (right)  lung  lobe  fills.  (2). 
Upper  (right)  and,  succeeding  this,  the  lower  (left) 
lung  lobe  exhausts. 

The  (left)  shoulder  joint  takes  on  outer  bearing 
as,  foUo^dng  the  movement  of  the  shoulder  joint, 
the  (left)  upper  lung  lobe  fills,  the  (right)  jaw  ar- 
ticulation, meantime,  following  the  general  neck 
movement.  The  (right)  jaw  articulation  takes  on 
outer  bearing,  and  the  (right)  lower  lung  lobe  fills. 
The  (right)  shoulder  joint  giving  off  inner  bearing, 
the  right  true  ribs  are  released,  then,  the  (left)  jaw 
articulations  giving  off  inner  bearing,  the  left  false 


230 


ribs  and  the  left  hip  joint.  Lastly,  the  drawing  on 
the  left  shoulder-blade  from  the  head  having  been 
already  estabhshed,  the  line  of  traction  is  made 
collateral  by  a  drawing  from  below. 

§  178.  If  we  have  previously  succeeded  in  ex- 
plaining the  successive  movements  of  the  parts  in 
detail,  the  fillings  and  exhaustions  given  in  this 
section — the  action  of  the  leading  one  being  con- 
tinued throughout — should  indicate  those  move- 
ments. The  key  to  "  setting  up,"  as  before  men- 
tioned, is  rather  the  knowing  where  to  yield  than 
where  to  initiate  movement. 

The  pacing  movement  ought,  perhaps,  theoreti- 
cally, to  equalize  a  C  of  the  lung  tips  before  its 
corresponding  lower  or  upper  lobe  ;  but  in  practice, 
particularly  where  there  is  even  the  slightest  dis- 
tortion, we  think  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  some 
precedence  to  the  lobes. 

§  179.  There  remain  two  points  to  be  spoken  of. 
These  depend  upon  the  fact  that  when  the  shoulder- 
blades  are  turned  outwards  they  act  upon  the 
lower  part  of  the  neck-root  joint,  and  affect  the 
trunk ;  but  when  they  are  turned  inwards  they  act 
upon  the  upper  part  of  this  joint  and  affect  the 
neck  S. 

By  pressing  the  right  shoulder  forward,  and  to 


231 


the  left,  across  the  neck,  we  bring  on  motion  in  the 
secondary  section  of  the  left  anterior  winding  line, 
and  thus  initiate  a  forcing  of  the  action  of  the  (left) 
head  condyle. 

By  pressing  the  left  shoulder  forward,  to  the 
right,  across  the  neck,  we  bring  on  motion  in  the 
line  of  reaction  of  the  secondary  section  of  the 
right  posterior  winding  line,  and  thus  initiate  a 
forcing  of  the  indirect  pressure  of  the  left  head 
socket  (§39). 

§180.  Equalization  on  tico  lines  at  once  (or  double 
action  in  halting).  In  this,  a  similar  interchange  of 
action  and  of  bearings,  from  side  to  side,  takes  place 
as  when  the  lines  act  singly,  but  the  "shapes"  do  not 
show  themselves  laterally.  It  finishes  also  in  the 
same  result  of  bringing  the  tractions  into  collateral, 
instead  of  diagonal  connection.  As  before,  the 
eye  muscles  accompany  more  especially  the 
ophidian,  the  digastrics  the  composite  the  lower, 
jaw  the  bicomposite  spine. 

§181.  No.  11. — Double  action  equalization,  the  an- 
terir  lines  leading. 

On  the  anterior  lines  (leading). — Ophidian  spine — 
by  outward  bearing  action,  in  lower  C,  of  central 
S,  both  lower  lung  lobes  begin  to  fill  as  scecondary 
section   action.      Then  both     anterior    cross-line 


232 


ends  exchange  for  collateral  actions,  between  the 
upper  and  lower  lung  lobes,  as  primary  section 
action.  The  changes  caused  in  the  lines  of  gravity 
give  this  fundamental  movement  a  general  effect 
throughout  the  body. 

Composite  Spine. — The  lower  lung  lobes  go  on 
filling  and  the  hip-joints  interchange  outer-bear- 
ings for  the  secondary  section.  Then  the  small 
of  the  back  and  the  upper  corners  of  the  sternum 
adjust  their  right  and  left  sides,  as  continuing  the 
action  of  the  anterior  cross-hne  ends  for  the  prim- 
ary section. 

Bicomposite  Spine. — The  lower  lung  lobes  con- 
tinuing to  fill,  the  hinder  hmbs  adjust  themselves 
for  the  secondary  section,  the  lines  passing  in  rear 
of  the  hip  joints.  Then,  the  lower  jaw  articula- 
tions adjusting  on  the  outer  bearings,  followed  by 
the  rotary  movement  of  the  head  condyles,  on 
their  rear  ends,  and  the  forward  across-joint  move- 
ment of  the  condyles,  followed  by  the  adjustment 
of  the  shoulder-blades  on  the  outer  bearings,  rep- 
resent the  anterior  cross-line  ends  in  the  2y'''iMary 
section.* 


♦The  movement  between  the  lower  jaw  articulations  and  shoulder- 
blades,  crossing  at  the  junction  of  the  neck  0  C,  is  as  if  th3  body  swung 
between  them,  as  the  bicomposite  tractions  confirm  those  which  have 


233 


On  posterior  lines  (by  induction).  Since  the  last 
point  in  the  development  of  the  anterior  lines  was 
a  bearing  on  the  shoulder-blades,  some  action 
on  these  will  result  from  each  stage  in  the  subse- 
quent development  of  the  posterior  lines  until  they 
bear  on  the  lower  jaw. 

Ophidian  Spine. — Interchange  of  inner  bearings 
between  right  and  left  sides  of  lower  ribs  begin 
to  straighten  these  ribs  in  double  twist,  and  thus 
complete  the  filKng  of  the  lower  lung  lobes  (reac- 
tion). Interchange  of  inner  bearings  and  between 
sides  of  the  upper  C,  (proper  action,)  and  com- 
mencing filling  of  the  upper  lung  lobes  from 
their  lower  portions  for  secondary  action.  Then, 
posterior  cross-line  ends  adjust  themselves  between 
the  lung  lobes  for  j)^'i'nary  section. 

Composite  Spine. — As  the  interchange  of  inner 
bearings  between  the  lower  C  ribs  continues  from 
the  reactionary  movement,  its  effect  extends  in  the 
muscles  from  the  lower  end  of  the  spine  to  the 
fi'ont  of  the  pelvis,  and  does  not  yet  reach  the  hip 
socket.  Extended  interchange  between  lower  ribs 
of  inner  bearings,  which  adds  to  filling  of  lower 

gone  before.     Thia  movement  changes  the  "general  lines  of  thrust" 
against  the  edges  of  the  head  joint  sockets. 

The   lung  tips  (second  C)  movement   occurs  with  the  two  condyle 
movements. 


234 


lungs  and  causes  an  adjustment  between  the  mus- 
cles passing  from  lower  end  of  the  sternum  to  the 
pelvis  (reaction).  Interchange  of  inner  bearings 
between  rib  articulations  of  upper  C  and  fiUing  of 
upper  lung  lobes,  for  secondary  section.  Then^ 
adjustment  of  posterior  cross-line  ends  at  small  of 
back  and  lower  end  of  sternum,  as  continuing  ac- 
tion of  posterior  cross-line  ends  *  and  drawing  on 
posterior  points  of  application  (which  we  may  per- 
haps consider  to  be  placed  at  the  front  projecting 
points  of  the  hip  bone)  for  the  primary  section. 

Bicomposiie  Spine. — Hinder  limbs  adjust  them- 
selves, as  to  inner  bearing,  on  front  part  of  feet 
(reaction).  The  shoulder-blades  adjust  themselves,, 
followed  by  the  movement  at  the  anterior  ends  of  the 
head  sockets  (proper  action).  Then  the  movement 
backward  of  the  sockets  along  the  outer  edges  of 
the  condyles,  followed  by  the  adjustment  of  the  jaw 
articulations,  as  representing  the — on  this  bearing — 
posterior  cross-line  end  adjustment;  and,  finally, 
the  adjustment  and  drawing  of  the  posterior  points 
of  apphcation  at  the  front  of  the  hip  sockets  and 
down  the  hinder  limbs,  for  the  primary  section. 

*  We  have  not  thought  it  worth  while  to  speak  of  the  movement  of 
the  diaphragm  and  its  pillars'. 


235 


Stress  on  upper  comers  of  sternum.     Upper  C  of 
lung  tips  pivot  for  head  socket  movement. 

§  182,  No.  12. — Double  action  equalization,  the  pos- 
terior lines  leading. 

On  the  posterior  lines  (leading)  ophidian  spine. 
Interchange  between  sides  of  lower  C  of  central  S 
of  inner  bearings  (reaction).  This  action,  which, 
in  the  preceding  formation  (§  181),  when  superin- 
duced on  the  outer  bearing,  completed  the  filling 
of  the  lower  lung  lobes,  by  straightening  the  ribs 
in  "double  twist;"  now,  on  the  contrary,  having 
only  the  efi'ect  of  pressing  the  ribs  together,  drives 
the  air  fr*om  these  lobes.  Interchange  of  inner 
bearings  between  the  sides  of  the  upper  C  of  the 
central  S  (proper  action).  This  action  of  the  pos- 
terior points  of  application  draws  the  rib  heads 
down,  and  thus  raising  the  outer  part  of  their  arcs 
enlarges  the  upper  lung  lobes.  This  for  the  sec- 
ondary section.  For  the  primary  section  the  pos- 
terior cross-line  ends  separate  between  the  lung 
lobes,  and,  following  this,  the  posterior  points  of 
application,  do  the  same,  at  the  lowest  dorsal  ver- 
tebrae.^ 

Composite  Spine. — Again,  the  lower  ribs  are  com- 

*  What  are  "'points  of  application"  for  the  "ophidian  spine"  come  to 
be  cross-line  ends  for  the  "  composite." 


236 


pressed,  the  lower  lungs  are  exhausted ;  the  muscles 
passing  from  the  lower  end  of  the  sternum  to  the 
pubis  adjust  themselves  so  that  the  lines  of  gravity 
of  the  body  come  upon  the  inner  sides  of  the  feet 
(reaction).  The  upper  ribs  being  raised  by  their 
interchange  of  inner  bearings  at  their  articulations 
are  filled  (proper  action).  This  for  secondary  sec- 
tion. For  primary  section,  the  axial  line  of  filling 
for  the  upper  lung  lobes  passes  through  the  lower 
end  of  the  sternum,  at  which,  and  following  it,  at 
the  small  of  the  back,  the  posterior  cross-line  ends 
adjust  themselves  on  either  side.  Then  the  poste- 
rior points  of  application  on  each  side  at  the  ante- 
rior points  of  the  pelvis."^ 

Bicomposite  spine. — The  hinder  limbs  inter- 
change inner  bearing  (reaction).  The  shoulder- 
blades  do  the  same  (proper  action)  secondary 
section.  The  movement  on  the  anterior  ends  of 
the  head  joint  sockets  followed  by  their  movement 
backward  on  the  outer  edges  of  the  head  condyle, 
which  changes  the  lines  of  general  thrust  and 
brings  the  bearing  on  the  lower  jaw,  as  represent- 
ing the  cross-line  ends.  Finally,  the  adjustment  of 
the  posterior  points  of  application  at  the  hip-joints 

*  At  every  stage  more  and  more  appui  has  been  taken  on  the  shoulder- 
blades. 


237 


in  front,  which  are  likewise  for  this  spine,  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  posterior  cross-Hne  ends,  primary 
section. 

On  the  anterior  lines,  (by  induction) — ophidian 
spine.  With  movement  of  articulations  of  lower 
ribs  on  to  their  outer  bearings,  the  lower  lung  lobes 
begin  to  fill  for  the  secondary  section.  Then,  with 
the  movement  of  the  anterior  "  points  of  applica- 
tion" at  the  lower  part  of  the  neck-rook  joint,  the 
adjustment  of  the  anterior  cross-line  ends  between 
the  lower  and  upper  lung- lobes  for  the  primary 
section. 

Composite  spine. — With  the  continued  movement 
of  lower  ribs  on  to  their  outer  bearings,  and  contin- 
ued filling  of  lower  lung-lobes,  comes  the  adjustment 
on  outer  bearing  of  the  hip  sockets  for  the  primary 
section.  Then  the  adjustment  in  continuation  of 
the  cross-Hne  ends  at  the  upper  part  of  the  sternum 
and  at  the  small  of  the  back*  the  anterior  points  of 
appHcation  rising  in  the  neck  above  the  neck-root 
joint  for  the  primary  section. 

Bicomposite  spin£. — Adjustment  of  hinder-limbs 
on    the    outer    bearing,   the    movement    passing 

*  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  succession  goes  from  sternum  to  small 
of  =back,  with  posterior  lines  leading,  both  for  posterior  and  anterior 
lines— whereas  it  was  from  small  of  back  to  sternum,  with  anterior 
lines  leading. 

11 


238 


througli  hip  joints  for  the  secondary  section.  Then 
the  adjustment  of  lower  jaw  articulations  on  outer 
bearing  as  representing  the  anterior  cross-line  ends,, 
and  movement  of  head  condyles  on  their  posterior 
ends,  followed  by  movement  of  condyles  across  the 
joint  and  adjustment  of  shoulder-blades  on  the 
outer  bearing  for  the  final  movement. 

§  183.  We  have  rehearsed  over  again  for  double 
action  equalization,  the  details  which  might  have 
been  collected  from  the  movements  on  one  set  of 
lines.  This  has  been  done  because  the  succession 
of  double  movements,  with  the  posterior  lines  lead- 
ing, appears  to  us  to  be  that  on  which  the  method 
taught  by  Monsieur  Morquin^  before  alluded  to,  is. 
carried  out.  This  method,  which  is  excellent  for 
a  regular  exercise,*  we  shall  now  discuss. 

It  will,  we  think,  become  evident  from  this  ex- 
ercise— 

That  although  Mons.  Morquin's  method  di- 
rected filling  the  lungs  from  the  mouth,  yet  the 
normal  filling  of,  is  through  the  nostrils.  That 
the  upper  lobes  fill  on  the  posterior  fines,  the 
lower  lobes  on  the  anterior  lines.  That  the^ 
lower  C  C  of  the  lung  tips  fill  at  the  passage  from 

*  That  is  for  confirming  the  setting  up  by  strengthening  the  defi- 
cient muscles.  It  does  not,  however,  quite  answer  where  a  rapid 
"  setting  up  "  is  called  for. 


239 


posterior  to  anterior  lines,  when  tlie  "thorough 
action  "  of  the  head  sockets  passes  the  lines  from 
the  shoulder-blades  to  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  upper 
C  C  of  the  lung  tips  on  the  passage  from  anterior 
to  posterior  lines,  when  the  "thorough  action  "  of 
the  head  condyles  passes  them  from  the  lower  jaw 
to  the  shoulder-blades.  Also  that  each  lung  lobe, 
upper  or  lower,  is  exhausted  and  filled  through  its 
collateral  nostril. 

That  when  both  upper  and  lower  lobes  are  filled, 
the  pressure  from  the  lower  lobes,  if  the  filling  of 
these  through  the  nostrils  be  continued,  may  be 
made  to  drive  out  the  air-  from  the  upper  lung 
lobes,  through  the  mouth,  and  that  a  long  protrac- 
ted, if  not  indefinitely  contiuued,  current  of  air 
may  thus  be  kept  up,  on  which  the  vocal  chords 
may  act,  as  the  cords  of  any  stringed  instrument. 
Of  the  volume  of  sound  created,  and  of  the  ease 
with  which  it  may  thus  be  produced,  Mons. 
Morquin  gave  repeated  proofs. 

§  184.  Mons.  Morquin,  so  far  as  we  know,  made 
no  attempt  at  any  anatomical  explanation  of  the 
system,  which,  he  said,  had  been  taught  him,  as 
one  of  the  soldiers  of  a  battalion  selected  for  gym- 
nastic instruction,  and  which,  at  the  time  of  the 
French  Revolution  of  1830  was  stationed  at  Rheims. 


240 


Having  been  unable  to  find  any  reference  to  this 
method  in  the  work  of  Col.  Amoros,  or  to  hear 
anything  of  it  when  in  France,  a  number  of  years 
ago,  we  are  inclined  to  think,  that,  as  probably 
was  the  case  with  the  motions  of  the  manual  of 
arms,  the  seat  on  horseback,  &c.,  the  method  was 
derived  from  a  description  of  the  way  in  which 
some  perfectly  formed  man  naturally  accomplished 
the  action  in  filHng  his  own  chest  and  thus  setting 
himself,  up.  In  this  case,  very  probably,  the  in- 
structor. 

His  directions  may,  we  believe,  although  per- 
haps not  in  his  own  \\iords,  be  correctly  stated  as 
follows  : 

(1.)  "  Place  the  feet  parallel  to  each  other,  and 
together,  throughout  their  length." 

(2.)  "  Hold  the  head  in  its  ordinary  position, 
and  free,  but  keep  both  it  and  the  chest  well  for- 
ward, so  as  to  bring  the  weight  of  the  body  on  to 
the  front  part  of  the  feet." 

(3.)  "  Take  a  full  breath  through  the  mouth." 

(4.)  "  Close  the  mouth,  retaining  the  air  thus 
taken  in.  Raise  the  chin  only  sufficiently  to  keep 
the  balance  of  the  body  forward,  without  rising  on 
the  toes,  and  push  ivith  the  upper  front  part  of  the 
chest  forward  and  upiuard^ 


241 


"  This  action  must,  as  the  trial  will  show,  cause  the 
air  to  be  expelled  slowly  through  the  nostrils.  Tliis 
expulsion  of  the  air  is  to  be  carried  as  far  as  pos- 
sible." 

(5.)  "  Ketaining  the  position  of  all  parts  of  the 
body,  as  thus  attained,  again  fill  the  chest  by  the 
mouth,  and  again,  by  "  pushing  with  the  upper 
front  part  of  the  chest  forward  and  upward,"  let 
air  slowly  pass  out  through  the  nostrils." 

BemarJc. — "  Let  the  inspiration  through  the 
mouth  be  sudden  but  full.  Let  the  expiration 
through  the  nostrils  be  slow  and  regular." 

"  The  repetition  of  these  actions  will  at  last 
bring  the  body  into  a  position  in  which  the  chest 
will  be  tensely  swollen  with  air,  and  every  joint  of 
the  body  feel  free.  Its  attainment  in  the  course  of 
the  movement  will  be  marked  by  the  feehng  that 
the  shoulder-blades  are  drawn  firmly  against  the 
body,  while  at  the  same  time  the  hands  are 
turned,  thumbs  outward,  elbows  near  the  body, 
and  the  neck  is  perfectly  free  in  front." 

§  185.  Explanation  on  tlie  theories  already  ad- 
vanced. The  whole  difference  between  the  above 
detailed  method  and  No.  12 — "  Setting-up  by  dou- 
ble action,  the  posterior  lines  leading  " — consists 
in  the  air  for  the  upper  lung  lobes  being  drawn 


242 


through  the  mouth  in  the  former,  which  makes  it 
possible  to  begin  by  filling  them,  and  to  follow  this 
by  exhausting  the  lower  lobes  by  the  "  reaction  " 
from  the  secondary  section  of  the  posterior  lines, 
with  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  as  an  intermedi- 
ate .starting  point,  instead  of  beginning  at  once 
with  the  shoulder-blades. 

In  No.  12  the  lower  lobes  must  be  first  ex- 
hausted through  the  nostrils,  and  then  the  upper 
lobes  filled  in  the  same  way  at  each  stage  (except- 
ing so  far  as  the  air  already  in  the  lungs  may  ad- 
just itself).  In  Mons.  Morquin's  method  the 
upper  lobes  are  first  filled  by  the  mouth,  and 
then  the  lower  lobes  exhausted  by  the  nostrils. 
When  the  upper  lobes  are  once  filled,  the  lower 
lobes,  in  both  methods,  are  filled  through  the  nos- 
trils, and  the  two  methods  coalesce.  A  con- 
tinuance of  filling  the  lower  lobes  beyond  their 
capacity,  will  transfer  the  air  to  the  upper  lobes, 
whence  it  may  be  expired  through  the  mouth,  and 
form  the  voice. 

Mons.  Morquin's  method  has  several  advan- 
tages, especially  that  the  filling  of  the  upper  lobes 
through  the  mouth,  although  not  thorough,  is 
rapid ;  and  that,  by  a  few  mechanical  directions, 
a  recruit  may  be  caused  to  go  through  a  process 


.      243 

which  could  hardly  be  explained  to  the  mass  of 
men. 

In  all  methods  commencing  with  the  posterior  lines^ 
it  is  to  he  particularly  remembered  that  no  stiffening 
of  the  lines  from  the  chest  to  the  hip  joints  he  allowed 
in  the  'Reactionary''  working  of  the  lower  rihs^  he- 
cause  this  traction  passes  backward  only  gradually, 
viz :  first,  by  a  change  of  gravity  taking  effect  on 
the  front  part  of  the  feet ;  second,  by  the  adjust- 
ment in  the  muscles  joining  the  lower  end  of  the 
sternum  and  the  front  of  the  pelvis ;  third,  by  the 
drawing  of  the  posterior  points  of  appUcation  from 
ihe  front  of  the  hip  joints  (§  162,  sixth). 

§  186.  By  a  movement  analogous  to  that  just 
given,  but  carried  out  on  a  single  line,  viz. :  by  fill- 
ing the  left  upper  lung  lobe  through  the  mouth, 
and  emptying  the  left  lower  lung  lobe  through  the 
left  nostril,  it  wHl,  we  think,  become  apparent  that 
Mons.  Morquin's  method  is  aforrrvation  of  the  alter- 
nate  lines,  and  not  a  forcing  of  the  old  ones. 

Let  the  left*  upper  lobe  be  filled  from  the  mouth, 
the  air  being  carried  to  its  upper  part,  and  then  the 
left  upper  part  of  the  chest  being  strained  upward 


*  It  need  scarcely  be  repeated  that  all  these  exercises  suppose  the 
right-handed  deformity.  In  the  contrary  case  the  parts  mentioned 
would  change. 


24A 


and  forward,  let  it  be  so  carried  around  to  the  left 
and  backward  as  to  cause  compression  of  the  left 
lower  lobe,  such  that  the  air  passes  out  through  the 
left  nostril.  After  a  certain  amount  of  repetition 
of  these  actions  the  right  lower  lobe  wiU  begin  to 
fill  from  the  right  nostril.  After  the  right  lower 
lobe  has  thus  filled  to  a  certain  extent  it  will  begin 
to  compress  the  left  lower  lobe,  and  to  form  a  co- 
working  with  it  which  may  be  likened  to  the  work- 
ing of  the  head  condyles  in  their  ball  and  socket 
connection.  After  this  has  been  carried  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  a  further  enlargement  of  the  left  upper 
lobe  will  take  place  by  transfer  of  air  from  the 
compressed  left  lower  lobe.  The  left  upper  lobe 
wiU  join  in  a  sort  of  co-working  with  the  right 
upper  lobe,  which,  after  compressing  the  latter  and 
causing  the  transfer  of  air  to  the  right  lower  lobe, 
will  bring  on  a  slight — finally  adjusting — filling  of 
the  right  upper,  and  conjoin  the  action  of  the  two 
upper  lobes,  so  that  they  may  be  likened  to  the 
sockets  of  the  ball  and  socket  of  the  head  joint. 

§  187.  It  may  be  that  the  reason  for  the  fact 
that  few  persons  can  take  a  so  satisfactorily  full 
inhalation  through  the  nostrils  as  through  the 
mouth  consists  in  the  necessity  for  a  full  move- 
ment of  the  lung  tips,  or,  what  comes  to  the  same 


245 


thing,  of  the  "neck-root  joint,"  in  order  to  accom- 
pHsh  the  first,  whereas  an  inhalation  through  the 
mouth  allows  a  greater  filling  of  the  upper  lobes 
mthout  moving  the  lung  tips. 

§  188.  A  few  directions  given  by  Mons.  Morquin 
for  various  exercises  may  be  introduced  here  : 

(A)  Extend  the  arms  and  fingers  to  either  side,  the 
fingers  being  kept  close  together.  Push  with  the 
ends  of  the  fingers  from  the  body,  thus  stretching 
the  fingers  to  the  utmost.  Very  soon  one  of  the 
fingers  will  experience  a  tendency  to  close  *  and 
the  others  to  follow  it. 

Keeping  up  the  tension,  let  the  fingers  bend  on 
their  own  joints  (i.  e.,  not  at  the  knuckles)  till  the 
tips  of  the  fingers  rest  on' the  inner  faces  of  the 
knuckle  joints. 

Next  close  the  knuckle-joints  until  the  nails  are 
supported  against  the  ball  of  the  thumb,  and  the 
heel  of  the  palm.  Thus  the  fingers  are  well  sup- 
ported. This  exercise  seems  an  excellent  one  for 
developing  the  strength  of  the  hand. 

Finally,  bend  the  thumbs  which,  meanwhile  have 
been  kept  tensely  extended,  so  that  their  nail  sec- 

*  We  think  the  middle  finger  first.  The  stretching  is  the  outer  bear- 
ing carried  to  its  extreme  point— the  bending  the  induced  inner 
bearing. 

11* 


246 


tions  rest  against  the  central  sections  of  the  two 
first  fingers. 

(B)  In  dropping  from  a  height  the  chest  should 
be  kept  swollen  with  air,  the  upper  part  pushed 
forward  and  upward.  The  chin  up,  the  feet  close 
together,  toes  touching.  The  arms  extended  and 
stretched  tensely  upwards.  The  fingers  together 
and  stretched.     Push  upward  with  the  finger  ends. 

On  touching  the  ground,  air  should  be  allowed 
to  pass  out  through  the  nostrils,  and,  if  necessary, 
through  the  mouth  with  a  shout.  Possibly,  also,  a 
spring  upward  should  take  place.  The  effort  to 
push  up  the  chest  and  the  ends  of  the  fingers  must 
be  continued  throughout. 

(C)  If,  when  dropping  from  a  height,  the  elbows 
be  bent  and  brought  to  the  sides,  and  then  be 
jerked  backwards  or  the  fore-arms  thrust  forward, 
a  considerable  change  as  to  the  point  of  descent  may 
be  effected. 

(D)  As  a  general  rule  in  all  gymnastic  exercises, 
whether  on  the  gymnastic  bars  or  in  the  manual  of 
the  musket,  &c.,  the  fingers  should  be  kept 
stretched  when  grasping,  and  the  "  heel  of  the  palm'' 
should  alivays  strike  first,  i.  e.,  the  stroke  of  the 
hand  should,  like  that  of  the  foot  on  the  ground 
in  progression,  be  made  on  the  outer  bearing. 


247 


In  the  second  motion  of  "  charge  hayonetj'  if  the 
left  hand  be  held  thus  stretched  out,  the  musket 
on  striking  the  heel  of  the  palm  and  falling  in  the 
direction  of  the  knuckle-joints,  will  close  the  hand 
in  spite  of  any  effort  to  keep  it  extended. 

§  189.  We  may  add  : 

(a)  That  the  whole  of  the  difficulty  so  generally 
experienced  in  "  support  arms''  comes  from  the  left 
upper  lung-lobe  not  being  properly  filled  with  air, 
and  from  the  consequent  dropping  forward  on  its 
inner  bearing  of  the  left  shoulder-blade. 

(b)  The  ball  and  socket  action  between  the  lung 
lobes  being  the  pivot  for  aU  the  movements  of  the 
body,  the  shoulder-blades,  which,  by  their  position, 
work  directly  over  this  pivot,  should  support  each 
other  directly,  when  the  man  is  perfectly  set-up  ; 
that  is,  the  movement  of  an  arm  in  fencing  goes 
through  its  own  shoulder-blade  directly  to  the  other 
shoulder-blade,  as  its  appui,  while  the  head  in 
a  plomb  on  its  condyles  regulates  the  subordinate 
ball  and  socket  movements  of  the  hips.  The  same 
would  be  the  case  in  writing,  &c.  The  shoulder- 
blades  do  not  thus  support  each  other  where  the 
{right)  handed  deformity  is  present,  for  there  is 
then  a  restrained  adjustment  of  the  hips  and  head 
which  interferes. 


248 


In  walking,  &c.,  the  movements  of  the  pelvis  in  its 
ball  and  socket  action  at  the  diaphragm  is  met  by 
the  action  of  the  head,  and  then  co-adjusts  with 
the  ball  and  socket  action  of  the  shoulder-blades  ; 
so  that  these  last  (with  more  or  less  movement 
of  the  arms)  regulate  eaxih  step.  In  the  horse  the 
suspension  of  the  formation  of  the  alternate  ante- 
rior line  in  the  bicomposite  spine  (A'^)  until  after 
the  grounding  of  the  free  fore-foot,  in  the  trot,  is 
necessary  in  order  to  maintain  the  collateral 
balance.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  the  walk  of  a 
man,  after  (e.  g.)  the  left  foot  has  left  the  ground 
and  the  right  foot  come  down,  a  moment's  delay 
should  take  place  before  the  old  bicomposite  gath« 
ering  on  the  left  shoulder  is  discharged,  and  it  is 
the  imperfect  performance  of  this  which  causes  the 
backward  hitch  of  the  right  shoulder  after  the 
right  foot  has  come  down  so  generally  seen. 

(c)  A  well  set-up  man  will  experience  no  diffi- 
culty in  carrying  the  musket  in  old  way,  i.  e., 
balanced  on  the  middle  finger  of  the  left  hand,  the 
stock  supported  in  the  hollow  of  the  left  shoulder. 

Having  thus  gone  into  the  details  of  the  move- 
ments in  the  two  identical  actions  of  halting  and 
setting-up,  it  may,  we  think,  be  added  that  they 
all  follow  on  a  continuous  movement  of  holdiag  up 


249 


the  head.*  The  attempt  to  do  this  will  of  itself 
indicate  what  line  is  to  commence  the  winding  line 
movements,  and  on  this  others  will  follow,  if  it  be 
bom  in  mind — 

First. — That  although  in  actual  execution  the 
formations  of  the  ophidian,  composite,  and  bicom- 
posite  spines  must  run  into  each  other,  yet  there 
are  three  distinct  stages,  all  of  which  give  some 
movement  at  the  head  joint,  viz.  : 

The  ophidian  spine,  a  general  movement,  as  of  a 
simple  ball  and  socket. 

The  composite  spine,  a  more  definite  movement 
of  the  division  into  two  parts,  accompanied  with  a 
full  movement  of  the  corresponding  C  of  the  neck  S. 

The  bicomposite  spine,  a  complete  condyle  and 
condyle-socket  movement. 

These  movements  must  bring  on  the  filling  of  the 
alternate  lung  lobes  and  exhaustion  of  the  ab- 
normally filled  ones  for  each  line,  anterior  and  pos- 
terior ;  and,  with  the  beginning  of  the  composite 
spine  movement,  as  finishing  that  of  the  composite 
spine,  the  action  of  the  lung  tips. 

Second. — That  the  action  oi  the  posterior  line 


*If  the  movement  is  to  begin  with  a  posterior  line,  which  virtually 
brings  down  the  head  in  front,  the  front  of  the  socket  will  rise  as  the 
head  is  raised. 


250 


lo  h'  consists  so  much  in  the  reflected  secondary 
action,  that  the  actual  primary  action  occupies  but 
little  time,  and  also  the  direct  secondary  section  is 
so  retarded  that  the  filling  of  the  alternate  upper 
lung  lobe  may  be  kept  back  until  the  formation  of 
even  the  composite  spine  is  well  advanced. 

The  accommodating  of  the  lower  C  convex  of  the 
neck  to  the  reflected  secondary  action  in  that  part, 
must  be  particularly  remembered,  and  the  inward 
turn  of  the  filling  loiver  C  of  the  alternate  lung  tip, 
and  outward  turn  of  the  exhausting  loioer  C,  the 
outward  turn  of  the  filling  upper  C  and  inward 
turn  of  the  exhausting  one. 

Finally,  in  causing  all  the  movements  to  succeed 
a  continued  development  of  the  first,  and,  by  in- 
duction of  the  succeeding  lines  in  the  head-joint, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  eve^y  thing  goes  for- 
ward toivard  the  formation  of  the  collateral  tractions, 
and  that  thus,  whatever  the  movement,  the  head 
keeps  steadily  up. 

To  complete  this  subject,  see  particularly  Ap- 
pendix n,  p.  290. 


251 

PART  YI. 

KiDING. 

§  190.  We  have  endeavored  to  show  how  seri- 
ously the  inequahty  of  action  in  symmetric  parts, 
and  the  consequent,  imperfect,  and  "  shackly " 
movement  of  central  points  may  interfere  with 
personal  locomotion. 

Not  less  do  these  faults  interfere  with  the  seat 
on  horseback,  indeed  the  trouble  here  is  still  more 
serious,  for  the  points  of  appui  instead  of  being  on 
an  immoveable  surface,  which  will  await  the  ad- 
justment of  the  body,  as  does  the  ground,  have 
place  on  another  body,  w^hich  is  continually  in 
motion,  and,  if  not  met  in  time,  are  at  once  re- 
moved. Thus,  if  the  seat  bcnes  of  the  rider  do  not 
move  equally,  one  of  them,  generally  the  right,  is 
left  behind  by  the  motion  of  the  horse.  Hence, 
that  hanging  back  of  the  right  shoulder  so  general- 
ly to  be  observed,  even  in  passable  horsemen.  When 
this  fault  exists,  it  is  only  by  making  the  knees,  in- 
stead of  the  seat  bones,  the  points  of  appui,  that 
an  action  of  the  shoulder  may  make  up  for  this  loss 
of  position,  and  it  is  in  fact  thus  made  up,  with  a 
sort  of  hop  on  the  other  seat-bone,  for  which  the 


252 


appui  on  the  knee,  or  perhaps  on  the  stirrup,  gives 
the  necessary  freedom. 

§  191.  The  grand  difference  between  riding  and 
personal  locomotion  seems  to  us  to  exist  in  the 
fact  that,  although  the  rider  sits  over  the  lungs  of 
the  horse,  the  traction  which  he  himself  receives  at 
the  seat  bones  is  not  in  the  ophidian  but  in  the 
composite  spine.  Consequently  his  first  action  in 
following  is  to  combine  the  composite  and  ophid- 
ian spines  by  the  action  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
sternum  for  progression,  at  the  lower  end  for  re- 
trogression, or  for  a  check  in  progression.  This 
combination  once  made,"  the  remainder  of  the 
movement  is  executed  in  the  regular  succession. 

Inaugurating  his  own  movement  by  a  leading 
action  in  the  ophidian  S,  as  does  a  man  on  foot, 
wiU  cause  a  discrepancy  of  motion  between  the 
rider  and  his  horse  sufficient  to  loosen  the  seat  of 
the  most  perfectly  formed  man.  A  httle  practice, 
however,  should  soon  overcome  this  difficulty,  and, 
we  think,  it  may  be  assumed  not  only  that  a  thor- 
oughly set  up  man  may  be  at  once  taught  to  fol- 
low the  motions  of  his  horse,  but  also  that  he  may 
at  once  be  able  to  manage  the  animal,  for  he  has 
only  to  inaugurate  in  his  own  body  the  movements 
he  desires  in  such  a  way  that  they  may  meet  the 


253 


horse' s  gathering  at  the  proper  time  for  forcing  or  for 
checking  the  latter,  and,  if  the  horse  be  properly^ 
suppled,  it  will  follow  up  the  impressions  received. 

The  Setting-up  on  horseback  may,  of  course,  be 
accompHshed  by  any  of  the  methods  we  have  men- 
tioned, but  there  are  two  among  them  which  ap- 
pear to  be  the  most  appropriate.  Both  begin  in 
the  composite  spiae  ;  that  on  the  "  anterior  wind- 
ing line  "  would  seem  the  best  fitted  to  progression, 
that  on  the  "posterior  line"  to  retrogression,  or 
to  a  check  in  progression.  Both  follow  in  the 
course  of  the  "  alternate  line  "  methods  Nos.  5  and 
6,  but  begin  at  intermediate  positions,  and  not  at 
the  "  poiats  of  application  " — that  for  the  left  an- 
terior line  commencing  with  the  left  shoulder- 
blade,  that  for  the  right  posterior  line  with  the 
right  upper  ribs. 

§  192.  For  the  anterior  line.  While  the  chin  is 
raised  well  up  and  carried  forward  the  left  shoulder 
blade  is  pressed  forward  and  to  the  right,  as  it  were, 
across  and  through  the  neck.  The  relative  beariag 
of  the  shoulder-blade  is  that  which  it  assumes  in  No. 
5,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  movement  of  the  alter- 
nate (right)  condyle  acrosss  the  head  joint.  In  the 
present  case  it  first  causes  the  actions  and  equali- 
zation preceding  this  relative  bearing  to  develope 


254 


ihemselves — the  right  thigh  rolls  out — the  right 
lower  lung  lobe  fills — the  right  upper  comer  of  the 
sternum  reduces  the  left,  the  left  stemo-mastoid 
turning  outward  in  its  lower  portion — the  right  jaw 
articulation  rises,  as  it  were,  over  the  left — the 
right  head  condyle  turns  on  its  posterior  end — 
then  moves  across  the  joint  to  the  front,  and  con- 
firms the  position  of  the  left  shoulder-blade. 

Second. — The  movement  of  the  left  shoulder- 
blade,  "  as  it  were,  across  the  neck,"  is  continued, 
and  developes  the  equalizing  of  the  posterior  lines, 
bringing  out  the  left  posterior  by  induction.  The 
left  lower  lung  lobe  is  condensed  as  the  "  reaction- 
ary "  movement  from  the  secondary  section  equal- 
izes the  lower  false  ribs.  The  left  upper  lung 
lobe  fills  with  the  "  proper  "  movement  of  this  sec- 
tion— the  left  shoulder-blade  is  set  in  the  left  al- 
ternate posterior  line — the  right  head  socket 
presses  upward  against  its  condyle  as  the  right 
upper  lung  lobe  is  reduced — passes  forward  across 
the  head  joint,  sets  the  right  jaw  articulation  as 
the  lower  C  of  the  right  lung  tip  condenses,  and 
tightens  the  right  stemo-mastoid  by  a  drawing 
from  below. 

§  193.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  in  the  progress 
•of  all  the  setting-up  movements  it  may  be  neces- 


255 


sary  occasionally  to  stretch  the  central  line  of  the 
body  so  that  the  advance  made  may  distribute 
itself  to  the  various  parts  and  leave  the  leading 
point  again  in  position  to  draw  in  its  first  connec- 
tion. There  is  also  a  slight,  final,  "double  action" 
movement  necessary  to  complete  the  setting-up. 

§  194.  For  the  posterior  line.  The  relative  bear- 
ing of  the  right  upper  ribs  is  that  in  which,  after 
the  passing  of  the  right  socket  across  the  head 
joint  (No.  6),  the  right  articulation  of  the  lower 
jaw  and  the  drawing  of  the  right  sterno-mastoid 
would  bring  them.  The  actions  and  equalizations 
preceding  this  relative  bearing  are  first  develop- 
ed— the  left  lower  lung  lobe  is  condensed,  some- 
what, as  the  "reactionary"  movement  from  the 
secondary  section  of  the  forming  left  posterior  (al- 
ternate) line  equalizes  the  left  false  ribs — ^left 
upper  lung  lobe  fills  with  the  "  proper  "  action — in 
the  bicomposite  spine  the  left  shoulder-blade 
equalizes  with  the  right — the  right  head  joint 
socket  presses  up  against  its  condyle,  and  the 
pressure  crosses  the  joint  to  the  front,  following 
which  the  right  lower  jaw  equalizes  on  its  inner 
bearing,  and  the  right  sterno-mastoid  draws. 

Second. — The  same  carrying  forward,  and  to  the 
left,  of  the  right  upper  part  of  the  chest  being  con- 


256 


tinued,  the  upper  lung  lobes  are  fully  equalized, 
then  the  lower  ones  ;  the  right  lower  lung  lobe  fill- 
ing, the  right  head  condyle  turns  in  connection 
with  the  right  articulation  of  the  lower  jaw, 
and  as  it  passes  forward  across,  the  joint  draws 
on  the  left  shoulder-blade.  This  finally  sets  by  a 
drawing  from  below,  and  a  sHght  movement  of  the 
posterior  point  of  application  in  double  action 
completes  the  setting-up. 

§  195.  The  last  mentioned  method  §  (194),  as 
will  be  observed,  carries  out  the  rule  to  "  bring  the 
right  shoulder  forward."  Both  may  be  used  for 
either  progressive  or  retrogressive  movement,  be- 
cause, as  was  said  of  all  the  methods,  they  directly, 
if  not  immediately,  find  that  stage  of  the  horse's 
actions  which  coincides  with  their  requirements. 
But  we  think  that,  to  recapitulate  the  general 
directions,  to  raise  and  carry  forivard  the  chirit 
while  the  left  shoulder-blade,  on  its  outer  hearing,  is, 
as  it  were,  carried  to  the  front  and  right,  across  the 
neck,  and  the  spine  stretched  at  intervals,  infolloiving 
the  movement,  so  as  to  bring  its  effects  into  the  trunk, 
and  allow  the  sides  of  the  pelvis  to  equalize,  the  whole 
ending  by  a  spontaneous  drawing  from  below  on 
the  right  stemo-mastoid,  and  followed  by  a  filling 


257 


of  both  upper  long  lobes,  will  best  suit  for  the  for- 
ward movements  of  the  horse. 

Again,  that  the  general  directions  to  carry  the  up- 
per  part  of  tlie  right  upper  ribs  for  ward  and  to  the  left, 
so  as  to  diminish  the  protrusion  of  the  left  hiver  (false) 
ribs,  by  sinking  the  loiuer  end  of  the  sternum  into 
their  cavity,  while  at  the  same  time  an  effort  is  made 
to  MOUNT  AS  IT  WERE,  the  body,  by  a  backward  move- 
ment of  its  upp>er  part,  over  and  upon  the  left  shoulder- 
blade;  the  spine  stretching,  in  following  the  movement, 
so  as  to  bring  its  effects  into  the  upper  chest,  above 
which,  as  the  neck-root  joint  equalizes,  the  head  joint 
IS  left  free  to  allow  of  and  adjust  itself  to  the  move- 
ment— the  whole  ending  by  a  spontaneous  drawing 
downward  of  the  left  shoulder-blade,  and  followed 
by  a  filling  of  both  lower  lung  lobes  will  best  suit 
the  backward  movements. 

§  196.  Many  books  have  been  written  on  the  seat 
on  saddles,  and  on  bits.^ 

As  to  the  seat,  it  may  vary  somewhat  with  the 
"make"  of  the  man,  but  well  set-up  men  will  have 
one  uniform  enough  even  for  soldiers. 

As  to  the  saddle,  no  saddle  can  be  contrived  that 
will  be  a  complete  defence  against  an  uneven  seat, 
or  careless  packing  and  adjustment  of  the  soldier's 

*  Major  Dwyer's  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  interesting. 


258 


"effects."  Against  the  latter  a  vigilant  officer  may 
provide ;  the  former  can  be  remedied  only  by  a 
good  setting-up,  and  the  unsparing  punishment  of 
every  trooper  who  does  not  maintain  it.^ 

§  197.  As  to  bits,  although  a  horse  may  be  taught 
to  check  himseK  under  a  severe  bit,  as  he  would 
before  a  stone  wall,  its  use  can  no  more  be  called 
riding  than  stopping  the  animal  in  such  a  manner 
can  be  called  halting  him.  A  curb  bit,  with  a  high 
port,  may,  in  most  horses,  force  up  the  upper  jaw, 
and  thus  prevent  the  head  joint  from  closing  as  it 
must  for  the  inner  bearing  and  the  spring  forward.f 
It  also,  by  the  leverage  of  its  branches,  gives  in- 
creased power  to  the  usual  way  of  opening  the 
lower  jaw,  but  it  is  deficient  in  lateral  action,  and 
to  some  extent,  by  making  the  lower  jaw  the  chief 
"  artificial  ground"  for  motion,  in  place  of  the  eyes, 
it  is  subject  to  the  same  objection  which  that  favor- 
ite of  the  French  army,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  made 
to  the  —  for  preliminary  breaking,  wonderful — sys- 


*  The  relation  of  the  knapsack  to  the  foot  soldier  is  the  converse  of 
that  of  the  rider  to  the  horse  ;  if  the  man's  shoulder-blades  he  flat,  and 
his  step  be  even,  a  well  packed  knapsack  will  hardly  worry  him. 

t  If  in  stopping  a  horse,  a  man  on  foot  force  the  snalfle  upwards  into 
the  mouth,  so  as  to  open  it  by  the  upper  jaw,  this  action  will,  we  think, 
be  at  once  recognized;  the  direction  to  hold  the  hand  high  in  "stand  to 
horse  "  would  seem  to  depend  on  the  same  principle. 


259 


tern  of  Baucher :  "  Je  ne  veux  pas  de  systeme  qui 
prend  sur  la  vitesse  des  chevaux." 

The  double-jointed  snaffle,  conjoined  with  the 
other  "  aids,"  should,  under  a  well  set-up  rider, 
control  a  horse  reasonably  well  made,  and  which 
the  man  has  ridden  for  a  fortnight,  under  all  cir- 
cumstances ;  but  then  the  other  "  aids"  must  often 
precede,  and  be  only  met,  by  that  of  the  bit.  In 
fact,  the  rider  must  imitate  the  motions  in  his  own 
body,  and  his  seat  first  communicate  them  to  the 
horse. 

§  198.  The  "  Aids."  Although  a  perfectly  sup> 
pled  horse  will  generally  answer  to  the  movements 
given  by  the  body  of  his  rider,  yet  if  unsuppled,  or 
fractious,  certain  forcing  influences  are  required. 

These  are  called  "  aids,''  and  together  with  them 
we  shall  discuss  some  of  the  changes  of  gait  and  of 
action  which  they  are  calculated  to  produce,  and 
which  we  have  deferred  from  §  159. 

§  199.  The  aids  are  four  in  number,  namely,  the 
Bit,  the  Spurs,  Pressure  by  the  Seat  bones  of  the 
rider.  Pressure  by  the  Beins  on  the  horse's  neck 

§  200.  The  Bit  has  differing  actions  according  to 
the  changing  relative  bearuigs  of  the  side  of  the 
lower  jaw  on  which  it  acts.  For  example,  if  the 
left  hind  foot  have  just  come  to  the  ground,  in  the 


260 


trot,  the  pressure  of  the  bit  on  the  left  side  of  the 
mouth  will  increase  the  formation  on  the  outer 
bearing,  and  if  continued  after  the  right  posterior 
line  has  begun  to  develope,  will  more  or  less  hinder 
the  formation  on  the  inner  bearing  wliich  this  re- 
quires. If  applied  exactly  after  the  spring  from 
the  left  hind-leg,  it  will  hinder  the  completion  of 
the  alternate  (right)  anterior  line  in  the  bicompos- 
ite  spine,  §  111  (since  it  is  the  opposite  side  of  the 
jaw  which  must  then  take  an  outer  bearing),  and 
so  check  the  progression.  Its  eifects,  we  suppose, 
may  always  be  calculated  for  the  "  working  side  " 
of  the  jaw  by  its  coincidence  with,  or  opposition 
to  the  movements  of  the  lower  jaw,  as  these  coincide 
with  the  winding  line  in  progress  of  development ; 
and,  for  the  unengaged  side,  by  the  effect  it  thence 
produces  in  favoring  or  hindering  the  movements 
of  the  working  side. 

In  double  action,  drawing  on  the  bit  favors  all 
the  anterior  winding  lines,  and  hinders  aU  the  pos- 
terior ones,  excepting  just  at  the  interchange  of 
condyles  on  the  spring,  when  hindering  the  pos- 
terior winding  lines  checks  the  formation  of  the 
alternate  anterior  ones.* 

*  The  movement  of  the  jaw,  it  will  be  remembered,  from  its  connec- 
tion with  the  digastrics  and  their  conneption  with  the  lungs,  permeates 
the  whole  body. 


261 


§  201.  The  Spur,  and  the  pressure  of  the  Seat- 
hones  of  the  rider  are  so  related  that  they  must  be 
discussed  together.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
premise  that  we  do  not  intend  actual  use  of  the 
spur  when  the  pressure  of  the  leg  suffices.  The 
spur,  acting  near  the  rear  end  of  the  sternum, 
brings  on  the  action  of  the  posterior  winding  Hne 
of  its  own  side  ;  thus  the  left  spur  will  induce  the 
developement  of  the  left  posterior  winding  line, 
first  in  the  "reaction"  from  the  secondary  section, 
then,  the  "proper"  secondary  section,  then  in  the 
primary  section  (the  drawing  of  the  cross  line  end). 
It  thus  reduces  the  working  of  the  opposite  pos- 
terior line. 

If  the  left  hind-foot  have  just  grounded  in  the 
trot,  the  right  posterior  line  begins  to  form  and 
put  the  foot  on  its  inner  bearings ;  drawing  the 
left  rein  will  interfere  with  this,  by  checking  the 
coinciding  movement  of  the  left  lower  jaw  articula- 
tion on  to  its  inner  bearing,  (temporal  muscle 
setting);  and  the  left  spur  will  also  check  it  by  de- 
veloping the  opposite  posterior  winding-line ;  con- 
sequently the  left  hind  leg,  if  (as  in  the  right-hand- 
ed man),  it  works  too  much  on  the  inner  bearing, 
will  be  "  bent  "  or  "  suppled." 

The  Seat-hone  pressure  affects  similar  results  for 
12 


262 


the  anterior  winding  line  of  its  side,  beginning, 
however,  with  the  primary  section.  Thus,  if  the 
horse's  right  hiad-foot  be  raised,  the  weight  of  the 
rider's  body,  thrown  perpendicularly  on  the  right 
seat-bone,  will  brijig  the  right  hind-foot  to  the  ground 
on  its  outer  bearing  by  the  primary  section  of  the 
right  anterior  line,  without  fully  developing  the 
secondary  section.  It  also  reduces  the  working  of 
the  secondary  section  of  the  right  posterior  hne. 

In  ("bending")  or  "suppling"  a  hind  leg,  the 
right  seat-bone  pressure  should  work  with  the 
action  of  the  left  rein  and  left  spur,  so  soon  as  the 
horse's  left  hind-foot  has  grounded.  In  this  way 
the  formation  of  the  right  posterior  line  is  hiadered 
by  the  left  side  of  the  bit,  while  the  left  posterior 
and  right  anterior  Hues,  by  their  developement 
through  the  left  spur  and  right  seat-bone,  subtract 
from  the  over-done  "  left-right  counteractions  '* 
and  tend  to  equalize  the  muscles. 

The  spur  in  the  flank  passes  along  the  hne  on 
which  it  may  be  apphed,  from  the  posterior 
end  of  the  sternum  to  the  hach^  at  which  point 
it  can  be  supposed  to  have  a  like  influence  to 
the  seat-bone.  Hence  it  may  be  that  Abd  el 
Kader  described  a  perfect  horseman  as  being  able 
croiser  Us  eperons  sur  le  dos  de  son  cJieval,  i.  e., 


263 


rowel  him  from  tlie  belly  to  the  back  at  one  sweep, 
which,  no  doubt,  produces  an  effectual  gathering. 

§  202.  We  have  emphasized  the  word  " per^jen- 
dicularly''  in  speaking  of  throwing  the  rider's 
weight  on  to  the  right-  (or  left)  ribs  of  his  horse, 
because  we  beheve  that  few,  even  of  pretty  well 
made  men,  can  do  this.  In  general  the  weight  is 
not  perpendicular,-  even  on  the  left  side,  and  the 
attempt  to  pass  it  to  the  right  side,  being  nothing 
more  than  a  hanging  over  from  the  left,  produces 
but  Htttle  effect  upon  the  horse.  The  required 
movement  of  the  cross-line  ends  in  the  rider's 
body  between  the  upper  and  lower  lung  lobes,  is 
much  greater  when  his  seat  bones  are  to  inter- 
change as  appui,  than  what  might  serve  tolera- 
bly weU  for  the  interchange  of  his  feet ;  hence  the 
difficulty.  The  value  as  an  "aid"  of  this  change 
of  the  rider's  weight  from  one  side  to  the  other  is 
little  appreciated  because  few  can  use  it. 

§  203.  Pressure  of  the  rein  on  the  side  of  the 
neck.  In  our  standard  illustration  for  position  — 
appuis  of  the  horse  on  left  hind  and  right  fore- 
feet— the  left  rein,  if  carried  to  the  right,  would 
press  against  the  left  convex  of  the  lower  C  of  the 
neck  S,  and  would  force  it  toward  forming  a  convex 
to  the  right.     Now,  it  has  been  said  (§§  60,  148) 


264 


that  in  the  regular  change  of  curvatui-es  the  convex 
must  pass  over  the  concave  ;  that  is,  it  must,  in  the 
reduction,  follow  the  direction  of  the  line  which 
formed  it.  This  line  was,  in  the  present  case,  the 
secondary  section  of  the  left  anterior  Hne,  whose 
convex  would  pass  over  and  to  the  left.  If,  in  so 
doiQg,  it  developed  the  corresponding  section  of  the 
right  anterior  line,  that  convex  passing  to  the  right 
would  oppose  it.  But  it  will,  we  think,  be  appar- 
ent that  the  pressure  of  the  rein  reduces  only  the 
lateral  development  of  the  convex,  and,  so  far  as 
the  perpendicular  development  is  concerned,  has 
rather  the  contrary  effect.  Hence,  it  will  he  the 
primary  section  of  the  alternate  (right)  posterior  Utw 
which  pressure  of  the  left  rein  on  the  left  convex  of  the 
loiuer  G  of  the  neck  will  develope. 

Again,  the  S  being  formed  by  the  counteractions 
of  two  forces,  compounded  each  of  an  element  of 
pressure  and  an  element  of  rotation,  it  may,  we 
think,  be  assumed  that  the  pressure  elements  give 
the  longitudinal  thrust,  whereas  the  rotary  element 
in  each  secondary  section  gives  an  outward  sideway 
movement  to  the  ribs,  legs,  and  other  parts  dependent 
on  the  convexity, 'whether  this  last  be  formed  or  only 
forming. 

Connected  with  a  primary  section,  the  leg  is  car- 


265 


ried  inward  across  the  body,  for  tlie  movement  there 
depends,  not  on  the  general  course  of  the  winding 
line,  but  on  the  direction  in  which  the  cross-line 
end  is  drawn  by  the  point  of  application,  and 
whether  the  leg,  in  connection  with  a  convexity,  is 
following  the  reduction  movement  of  the  old  cross- 
line  end,  or,  in  connection  with  a  concavity,  the 
establishment  of  the  new  one,  the  direction  is  alike 
across  the  central  line  of  the  body. 

The  reactions  will  hold  good  for  all  the  "  spines" 
(§  118),  and  thus  the  foee-legs  7nay  receive  lateral  as 
well  as  other  motion  from  two  sources,  the  body  or 
the  necJc,  and  be  differently  moved  accordiQgly  as 
they  are  in  the  trotting  or  the  pacing  connection. 

§  204  Since  the  spur  (§  199)  developes  the  pri- 
mary section  of  that  posterior  winduig  line,  whose 
point  of  appUcation  Hes  on  its  own  side  —  i.  e.,  the 
left  spur  the  primary  section  of  the  left  posterior 
line,  and  so  on — its  appHcation  on  a  convexity 
would  cause  (§  203)  the  corresponding  hind-leg  to 
move  across  the  body  with  the  reduciag  posterior 
cross-line  end. 

When  the  left  rein  pressed  upon  the  left  convex 
of  the  lower  C  of  the  neck,  at  the  same  time  that 
the  right  bit,  drawing  the  lower  jaw  of  that  side  on 
to  its  outer  bearing,  checks  the  formation  of  the 


266 


(alternate)  left  posterior  line,  the  longitudinal  thrust 
is  suppressed,  and,  if  the  horse  be  kept  steady,  the 
lateral  effect  only  has  place.  This  would  pass  the 
left  fore-foot  in  the  neck  connection  across  the  body 
to  the  left,  following  the  reduction  of  the  old  poste- 
rior cross-line  end  in  the  neck.  Were  the  left  fore- 
leg, in  its  body  connection — i.  e.,  on  the  anterior 
concave — the  primary  section  of  the  forming  r^ht 
anterior  line  would  move  it  in  the  same  direction. 

§  205.  The  cavesson  having  its  action  on  the  nasal 
bone,  of  course  moves  the  ujyper  jaw  downward, 
and  with  a  rein  to  each  side  from  the  projectiag 
ring,  the  head  joint  may  be  influenced  by  closing  it 
in  front  on  either  side,  or  using  both  reins  on  both 
sides  at  once.  This  closiug  of  the  joint  in  front  is 
normally  the  result  of  the  action  of  the  posterior 
winding  lines,  and  we  should  thus  have  an  "aid" 
which  would  directly  ^  act  in  favoring  these  Hues 
as  the  bit  does  in  favoring  the  anterior  lines. 

Possibly  the  rider,  with  a  left  cavesson  and  a 
left  snaffle  rein,  and  a  right  cavesson  and  right 
snaffle  rein,  crossed  in  either  hand,  might  find  the 
cavesson  an  additional  aid  in  suppling  his  horse. 

*  The  lower  jaw  movement  for  the  posterior  lines  is  one  of  closing— 
i.  e.,  the  inner  bearing— for  the  anterior  lines  of  opening— i.  e.,  the  outer 
bearing.  Now,  as  the  bit  only  opens  the  mouth,  the  posterior  lines  can 
only  be  favored  one  at  a  time  with  the  bit,  by  the  indirect  action  of 
causing  one  side  of  the  jaw  to  close  by  opening  the  other. 


267 


§  206.  We  subjoin  two  tables,  the  one  giving  the 
mode  of  action  of  the  several  aids,  the  other  the 
lateral  movements  of  the  legs  : 


26S 


Aids. 


Direct. 


Left  Bit  favours  secondary 
section  left  anterior 
line, 

impedes  primary  sec- 
tion riglit  posterior  line. 

Cavesson.  Eight  traction 
favours  primary  sec- 
tion riglit  posterior, 

impedes  secondary 
section  left  anterior 
line. 

Right  Stvr  favours  second- 
ary section  right  poste- 
rior line, 

im,pedes  primary  sec- 
tion left  anterior  line. 

Left  Seat-bone  favours 
primary  section  left  an- 
terior liae, 

im,pedes  secondary 
section  left  posterior 
line. 

Rein.  Pressure  of  right 
rein  on  lower  C,  left 
convex.  Brings  on  left 
posterior  line  for  neck 
S,  and  influences  anal- 
ogous convexes  in  the 
same  way» 


Indirect. 


Right  Bit  f avows  primary 
section  of  the  right  pos- 
terior line. 


269 


Lateral  Movements  of  Legs. 


Outward  from  central  line. 

Left  fore-leg.  Body  move- 
ment. Secondary  sec- 
tion of  left  posterior 
line. 

Neck  move- 
ment. Secondary  sec- 
tion of  left  anterior 
line. 

Right  fore-leg.  Body  move- 
ment. Secondary  sec- 
tion of  right  posterior 
line. 

Neck  move- 
ment. Secondary  sec- 
tion of  right  anterior 
line. 

Left  hind-leg.  Body  move- 
ment. Secondary  sec- 
tion left  anterior  line. 

Right  hind-leg.  Body  move- 
ment. Secondary  sec- 
tion right  anterior  line. 


Inward,  across  central  line. 

Left  fore-leg.  Body  move- 
ment. Primary  sec- 
tion of  right  anterior 
line. 

Neck  movement.  * 
Primary  section  of  left 
posterior  line. 

Right  fore-leg .  Body  move- 
ment. Primary  section 
of  left  anterior  line. 

Neck  movement*  Pri- 
mary section  of  right 
posterior  line. 

Left  hind  -  leg."^  Body 
movement.  Primary 
section  left  posterior 
line. 

Right  hind  -  leg.*  Body 
movement.  ,  Primary 
section  right  posterior 
line. 

*  All  these  follow  the  direction 

of  the  old  cross-line  end,  as  it  is 
reduced  by  the  new  one,  e.  g., 
the  left  hind-leg,  that  of  the  end 
belonging  to  the  right  posterior 
line,  as  the  left  spur  developes 
the  left  posterioi-  line.  We  have, 
for  convenience,  connected  the 
motibn  with  its  primary  rather 
than  its  proximate  cause. 


12* 


270 

§  207.  No  rider  who  cannot  feel  the  manner  in 
which  his  horse's  feet  are  placed  can  accurately  ap- 
ply the  aids.  This  is  one  of  the  decisive  argu- 
ments for  a  close  seat,  without  which  such  feeling 
is  out  of  the  question.  A  good  seat  once  obtained, 
nothing  is  easier  than  to  follow  the  advice  of  a 
German  teacher,  Seeger,  and,  knowing  the  sequence 
of  the  feet  in  the  trot,  to  watch  the  fore-legs,  and 
try  to  recognize  by  feeling  what  one  knows  to  be 
the  accompanying  position  of  the  hind-feet. 

CHANGES   OF  ACTION. 

§  208.  There  are,  of  course,  various  ways  in 
which  the  same  changes  of  action  may  be  accom- 
plished. We  shall  endeavor  to  select  for  our  ex- 
planations that  one  in  which  the  horse  would  ac- 
comphsh  it  under  the  influence  of  the  rider,  and, 
although  we  may  occasionally  differ  from  Von 
Oeynhausen,  we  must  again  repeat  our  acknowl- 
edgements to  him  for  the  "  s  accession  "  of  the  legs 
in  many,  though  not  all,  of  the  cases,  without, 
however,  at  all  charging  him  with  our  theories  in 
regard  to  them. 

Trot  to  walk.  Supposing  that  in  the  trot  the 
horse  has  just  put  do^vn  the  diagonal  right  fore 
and  left  hind-feet.   The  left  anterior  line  is  not  com- 


271 


pleted  (§§  130,  142, 143),  tliat  is,  a^  and  a'^  which 
turn  the  raised  left  fore-foot  on  its  outer  bearing 
and  thrust  it  forward,  are  not  yet  carried  out. 
With  tliis  completion,  the  left  articulation  of  the 
lower  jaw  must  come  on  its  outer  bearing.  This 
the  rider  hinders  by  drawing  the  right  rein.  In 
the  same  moment,  with  the  left  spur,  he  tempora- 
rily and  partially  hinders  the  development  of  the 
right  posterior  hne  by  commencing  the  formation 
of  the  left  one.  This  hindrance  to  the  completion 
of  the  left  anterior  line,  and  check  in  the  formation 
of  the  right  posterior,  will  induce  the  horse  to 
change  the  working  head  condyle  from  left  to 
right  directly,  i.  e.,  without  the  intermediate  move- 
ments, and  in  connection  with  the  neck  only. 

The  right  head  condyle  will  then  raise  the  left 
fore-foot  in  its  neck  connection  and  put  it  down, 
whereupon  the  ophidian  cycle,  only  suspended  in 
its  action,  will  resume  the  trotting  movement  for 
the  hind-legs,  the  right  hind-foot  will  be  put  down, 
and  the  walk'  inaugurated,  §  145. 

Gallop  to  Walk.  In  the  preceding  change 
of  gait,  "  Trot  to  walk,"  the  ophidian  gathering 
for  the  trot  step  with  the  hind-leg  was  only  re- 
strained, but  the  fore-leg  gathering  was  altered  to 
the  pacing  action  by  changing  the  working  head 


272 


condyle.  Supposing  a  horse  in  the  "  gallop  to  the 
right  "  to  be  halted  for  an  instant  as  he  lands  from 
a  spring.  His  feet  are  in  position  to  step  off  with 
the  left  fore,  followed  by  the  right  hind-foot,  if  the 
working  condyle  he  changed.  The  horse,  of  course, 
could  easily  accompKsh  this,  and  possibly,  the  rider 
passing  the  bridle  hand  to  the  right,  so  as  to  de- 
velope  the  left  posterior  line  in  the  neck  by  press- 
ing out  the  convex,  at  the  same  time  assisting  this 
by  a  very  slight  action  of  the  left  spur,  and  imme- 
diately following  the  change  of  condyle  by  passing 
the  weight  to  the  right  seat-bone,  in  order  to  put 
down  the  horse's  right  hind-foot,  might  teach  him 
to  do  it. 

Von  Oeynhausen*  remarks,  "  to  change  literally, 
at  once,  from  the  gallop  to  the  walk,  demands  such 
precision  on  the  part  of  the  rider,  in  giving  the 
aids,  and  such  patient  waiting  for,  and  ready  an- 
swering to  them  on  the  part  of  the  horse,  that  it  is 
hardly  ever  really  done.  In  almost  all  cases,  in 
common  life,  the  horse  takes  a  few  short  trotting 
steps,  and  then  first  begins  actually  to  walk."  In 
these  steps  the  horse  gradually  eliminates  a*  a'* 
and  b^  b'^  from  the  action  (§  145). 

Gallop    to    Trot. — The    horse   being   in   gallop 

*  "  Gang  des  P/erdes  und  Sitz  des  JReiters  "  plate  44  text. 


273 


to  the  right,  it  will  be  necessary  to  carry  out  the 
left  right  counteraction  entirely  through  the  neck- 
root  joint,  instead  of  allowing  the  right-left 
counteraction  to  join  and  form  the  double  action. 
For  this  purpose,  as  the  horse  lands  from  a  spring, 
the  rider  would  weight  strongly  his  left  seat-bone 
in  order  to  drive  forward  the  left  anterior  line,  use 
the  right  spur  to  strengthen  the  right  posterior 
line,  and,  at  the  same  time,  give  the  horse  his  head 
sufficiently  to  allow  him  to  respond  by  carrying 
through  the  trot,  on  the  right  fore  and  left  hind- 
leg,  landing  on  the  left  fore  and  right  hind-feet. 

Trot  to  Gallop. — For  gallop  to  the  right,  the 
gathering  for  the  left  right  counteraction  having 
been  made  predominant,  the  right  left  counter- 
action must  be  introduced  before  the  completion  of 
one  of  the  steps  on  the  left  hind  and  right  fore-feet 
so  as  to  bring  on  the  double  action  (§  156). 

The  rider  shortens  the  right  (inside)  rein,  carry- 
ing his  hand  to  the  left,  which  give  a  preponder- 
ance in  working  to  the  left  head  condyle ;  he  also 
throws  his  weight  on  the  left  seat  bone  and  uses 
the  right  spur  ;  these  aids  develop  preponderating- 
ly  the  left  right  winding  line.  As  the  horse  lands 
on  the  right  fore  and  left  hind-feet,  he  gives  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  pressure  to  the  right  seat-bone, 


274 


and  sufficiently  uses  the  left  spur  to  introduce  the 
right  left  winding  line  in  subordinate  connection 
with  the  left  right,  and  thus  forms  the  double  ac- 
tion. Baising  the  bridle  hand,  he  opens  the  mouth 
by  the  movement  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  by  the 
necessarily  following  movement  of  the  head  con- 
dyles, which  initiates  the  alternate  anterior  Unes, 
and  consequently  the  discharge  of  the  spring. 

§  209.  Halting  from  the  Gallop. — Holding  the 
reins  steady  as  the  horse  lands,  so  as  to  check  the 
motion,  but  not  to  change  the  head  condyles  by 
their  movement,  pressure  with  the  right  seat-bone 
brings  out  the  right  anterior  line,  and  the  left  spur 
the  left  posterior.  The  development  of  those,  the  sub- 
ordinate lines  of  counteraction  restrains  the  left  an- 
terior and  right  posterior  lines,  and  the  head  con- 
dyles not  being  allowed  to  change  by  their  owti 
movement,  the  four  lines  are  equalized  throughout 
the  body,  and  the  condyles  conform  to  the  new 
distribution  of  tractions. 

§  210.  Rearing  and  Kicking — May  be  explained 
entirely  by  the  "  double  trot  actions." 

Bearing. — In  this  the  horse  developes  the  ante- 
rior winding  lines  to  an  undue  degree  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  posterior  lines.  The  hind-feet  thus 
come  extravagantly  upon  their  outer  bearings  and 


275 

the   whole  body  is    drawn   back  upon   them  as 
appuis. 

Under  the  rider,  a  bit  which  prevents  the  horse 
from  completing  the  primary  section  of  the  poste- 
rior lines  when  he  is  urged  forward,  may  induce 
rearing.  The  lower  jaw,  checked  in  the  attempt  to 
come  on  its  inner  bearings,  throws  back  the  trac- 
tions to  those  which  belong  to  the  jaw  on  its  outer 
bearings,  i.  e.,  the  anterior  lines  in  their  secondary 
sections.  If,  when  up,  the  horse  thrust  forward  the 
front  legs  on  the  inner  bearing  by  introducing  the 
posterior  hne  in  the  anterior  C  C,  we  have  the  full 
converse  of  kicking,  which  begins  with  the  action 
of  both  lines  in  the  posterior  C  C,  and  ends  with 
the  single  action  of  the  posterior  lines  in  the  an- 
terior C  C. 

If  now,  the  horse  rear  with  a  perfect  equality  of 
the  sides,  the  constantly  increasing  action  of  the 
anterior  lines  will  finally  eventuate  in  "  setting-up" 
by  double  action  on  these  lines  (§  180),  and  he  will 
come  down  perfectly  gathered.  But  most  horses, 
and — if  they  wish  to  resist  their  rider — all  horses 
rear  with  a  preponderating  action  of  one  leg,  and 
if  the  rearing  then  be  carried  too  far,  they  may 
fall  over. 

As  a  remedy  for  rearing,  determined  spurring. 


276 


by  forcing  the  posterior  winding  lines  to  form,  may 
bring  the  horse  down  from  any  position  short  of 
the  loss  of  balance,  but,  as  horses  generally 
use  a  favorite  hind-leg,  the  development  of  the 
counteracting  lines  for  the  other  pair  of  diagonal 
legs  will  generally  answer  the  purpose,  if  applied 
early  enough  in  the  movement.  Thus,  if  a  horse 
stijffen  the  left  hind-leg,  the  rider  should,  by  throw- 
ing his  weight  on  the  right  seat-bone,  bring  the 
horse's  appui  more  on  the  right  hind-leg ;  at  the 
same  time  (if  necessary)  lift  the  left  hind-foot  with 
the  left  spur. 

§  211.  Kicking. — This  is  the  converse  of  rearing ; 
the  horse  developes  the  posterior  winding  lines  to 
an  undue  degree  at  the  expense  of  the  anterior 
lines ;  the  hind-feet  rise  on  their  inner  bearings  with 
a  forward  movement,  and  are  next  thrust  out  to  the 
rear  by  a  backing  movement,  as  the  fore-feet  come 
on  to  their  outer  bearings,  by  reason  of  the  unmixed 
action  of  the  secondary  section  of  the  posterior 
lines  in  the  anterior  C  C. 

In  kicking,  as  in  rearing,  most  horses  have  a 
favorite  leg ;  supposing  this  to  be  the  left  hind-leg, 
appuied  on  the  right  fore,  then  the  left  spur,  fol- 
lowed by  the  weight  on  the  right  seat-bone,  which 
would  introduce  the  alternate  right-left   counter- 


277 


action,  should  equalize  the  lines  and  reduce  the  un- 
manageableness  of  the  kick. 

§  212.  Bucking. — This  might,  we  think,  be  ex- 
plained as  a  jump  upward  in  the  double  pace 
movement,  while  refusing  the  cross-line  action  of 
the  spine.  The  thrust  in  the  spine  for  an  upward 
jump  is  both  ways  from  the  cross-lines  as  a  centre. 

§  213.  Turning.  The  common  turns  in  the  trot 
we  should  describe  as  being  brought  about  in  the 
following  manner  :  The  drawing  of  the  rein  on  the 
side  toward  which  the  turn  is  to  be  made  can  be 
done  under  two  conditions,  which  give  origin  io 
two  very  different  steps. 

First. — When,  for  example,  the  right  fore  and 
left  hind-feet  have  just  landed.  The  neck  portion 
(a^  a'®)  of  the  left  anterior  line — completing  the 
bicomposite  spine  —  is  about  to  form,  followed 
instantly  (or  possibly  somewhat  preceded)  by  the 
right  posterior  Hne.  Now,  since  the  formation  of 
the  left  anterior,  followed  by  that  of  the  right  pos- 
terior Hne,  will  bring  the  left  articulation  of  the 
lower  jaw  on  its  inner  bearing,  (i.  e.,  the  left  tem- 
poral muscle  drawing)  the  pressure  from  the 
right  side  of  the  bit,  by  drawing  the  eight  rein 
favors  this  ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  hinders  the 
thrusting  element  of  the  two  Hues,  and,  so  far  as 


278 


this  goes,  the  primary  section  of  the  right  posterior 
hne  crosses  the  right  (free)  hind-leg  to  the  left. 
The  right  hind-foot  being  put  down,  the  alternate 
Tight-left  line  forms  and  the  primary  section  of  the 
right  anterior  line  passes  the  left  fore-foot  across 
to  the  right  * 

The  whole  movement  may  be  strengthened  by 
the  right  spur,  increasing  the  working  of  the  right 
posterior  line. 

If  the  horse  be  in  progressive  motion,  the  right 
hind-leg  will,  we  think,  be  found  the  first  to  reach 
ihe  ground ;  if  he  be  stationary,  he  will  hdck  some- 
what on  the  right  hind-foot,  thus  holding  that  part 
of  the  left-right  counteracting  lines  undischarged, 
while  the  alternate  right  anterior  moves  the  fore- 
foot, and,  as  it  developes,  discharges  the  old  line 
(§  171),  which  last  crosses  the  right  hind-leg. 

Second. — When  the  right  fore  and  left  hind- 
feet  having  just  landed,  the  left  rein  is  drawn.  As 
in  the  previous  paragraph,  a'  and  a'^  are  about 
forming  in  the  bicomposite  spine,  but  pressure  of 
ihe  bit  on  the  left  side  of  the  jaw  will  hinder  the 


♦  These  crossings  are  thus  both  body  movements,  the  left  fore-leg 
being  forced  back  under  the  influence  of  the  front  C  of  the  ribs.  The 
■distinction  between  this,  which  is  a  trotting  movement,  and  the  cross- 
ing of  the  fore-leg  in  "  passage"  (§214),  which  is  a  pacing  movement,  will 
he  noticed. 


279 


formation  of  the  right  posterior  line,  and  the  draw- 
ing on  the  head  suppress  a^  a'^  by  causing  the 
horse  to  change  the  working  condyle  ;*  consequent- 
ly, the  thrusting  element  being  suppressed,  the  left 
fore-leg  will  be  darted  to  the  left  by  the  rotary  ele- 
ment of  the  secondary  section  of  the  right  anterior 
line  in  the  neck,  and  the  right  hind-leg  will  follow 
with  an  outward  step  caused  by  the  rotary  element 
of  the  secondary  section  of  the  right  anterior  line 
in  the  body. 

These  two  stages  wUl  exhibit  the  working  of  the 
bit  for  two  or  more  steps  ia  the  same  change  of 
direction  ;  for,  when  turning  to  the  right,  the  second 
action  of  the  bit  occurs  for  the  left  fore  and  right 
hiad-legs  as  appuis,  the  first  for  the  right  fore 
and  left  hind.  Thus,  at  one  step,  the  horse  crosses 
the  free  legs,  at  the  next,  he  throws  them  outward 
from  his  body. 

There  is  still  another  way  of  changiug  direction, 
the  discussion  of  which  must  be  reserved  for  *'  cir- 
cHng  on  the  haunches"  (§  217),  of  which  the  move- 
ment is  simply  modified  by  progression  being 
more  or  less  continued  as  it  proceeds. 


*  It  should  be  x'emembered,  that  in  the  horse  the  head  follows  the 
lower  jaw  only  when  the  latter  is  closed ;  when  open  the  lateral  move- 
ment disengages  it. 


280 


§  214.  Passage. — So-called  in  the  United  States 
and  in  the  English  Cavalry  Tactics — (French,  Ap- 
pui — German,  Schliessen,  Half  and  Full  Travers).* 

Taking  from  the  tables  §§  206,  207,  the  rules 
that  the  rotary  elements  of  the  anterior  lines  in 
each  of  the  three  "  spines"  act  by  their  secondary 
sections  in  connection  with  the  lower  jaw  on  its 
outer  bearings,  to  throw  the  limbs  outward  from 
the  central  line  of  the  body ;  while  the  posterior 
lines  act  with  the  lower  jaw  on  its  inner  beariQg 
by  their  primary  sections,  to  throw  them  inward 
across  the  central  Hne,  we  should  explain  the 
"Passage  "  in  the  following  way  : 

The  horse  is  placed  as  if  for  progressive  move- 
ment on  a  pair  of  diagonal  appuis — say  on  the 
right  fore  and  left  hind-legs,  the  head  is  then 
confined  by  drawing  the  right  rein,  so  that  the 
(working)  left  head  condyle  cannot  actually  dis- 
charge. The  left  spur,  in  the  next  place,  bringing 
into  action  the  left  posterior  line,  raises  the  left 
hind-foot  and  forces  down  its  right  fellow.  The 
formation  of  this  line  would  be  a  part  of  movement 
forward  on  the  right  hind-foot,  which  its  comple- 
ment the  right  anterior  line  not  being  formed,  the 

*  The  "  Passage  "  proper  is  not  the  same,  but  a  sort  of  "  Mark-time  " 
in  the  trot. 


281 


horse  might  shirk  by  backing  on  this  foot — but  the 
rider  by  bringing  down  his  right  seat-bone  and 
partly  inducing  the  right  anterior  line  prevents  it. 
Now,  the  action  of  the  left  spur  forming  the  left 
posterior  line  up  to  its  primary  section,  should,  in 
connection  with  the  pressure  of  the  right  side  of 
the  bit  which  checks  its  thrust,  carry  the  left  hind- 
foot  to  the  right,  across  the  central  line  of  the 
body.  The  pressure  of  the  left  rein  carried  agaiast 
the  neck  convex,  while  tending  to  produce  the  alter- 
nate curve  in  its  left  posterior  line  component, 
should,  by  the  primary  section  of  this  Hne,  carry 
the  left  fore-foot,  related  to  the  neck  as  the  left 
hind-foot  is  to  the  body,  in  the  same  direction,  viz., 
to  the  right — and  this  pressure  on  the  neck  affect- 
ing the  whole  length  of  the  spine,  forces  the  horse, 
if  he  have  resisted,  to  yield  to  the  foregoiag  action 
of  the  left  spur. 

Under  the  actions  of  the  left  spur,  left  rein  and 
right  seat-bone,  the  alternate  winding  lines  have 
nearly  suppressed  the  left-right  counteraction,  but 
the  head  condyles  have  not  been  allowed  to  change. 
This  counteraction  is  now  restored,  and  being 
stiQ  held  in  check,  as  to  its  forward  thrust,  by  the 
left  side  of  the  bit,  the  rotary  elements  of  the 
secondary  section  of  the  anterior  line,  on  the  light- 


282 


ening  of  the  right  seat-bone  pressure,  carry  the 
right  fore-leg  with  the  neck  restoration,  and  the 
right  hind-leg  with  that  of  the  body  sideways  to 
the  right,  by  reaction  from  what  would  have  been 
the  movement  of  the  two  left  feet  had  they  been 
free. 

The  neck  action  in  this  movement  connects  it 
with  the  pace  on  both  sides  of  the  body.^ 

The  horse  resists  the  "passage"  from  a  halt  by 
backing,  and,  when  in  progression,  by  striking  a 
pace  with  the  (right)  "inside"  feet.t  The  former 
is  checked  by  the  pressure  of  the  (right)  "inner" 
seat-bone  of  the  rider,  and  for  the  latter,  the  inside 
rein  must  be  drawn  sufficiently  to  prevent  the 
change  of  condyle. 

The  "passage"  is  one  of  the  best  exercises  for 
suppling,  particularly  when  the  horse  has  a  "favor- 
ite" side  of  the  mouth  for  resisting  the  bit,  and  it 
is  also  the  best  remedy  for  shying.  For  the  latter, 
the  horse  should  be  made  to  passage  toward  the 
object  which  he  avoids.  In  resisting  this,  he  will 
very  possibly  strike  a  pace  which,  we  think,  cor- 

*  The  diagonal  legs  in  the  turn  (§213  second)  were  thrown  outward 
by  similar  but  not  the  same  movements,  for  there  they  occurred  on  two 
different  lines  of  counteraction,  these  on  one  and  the  same,  as  in  the 
pace. 
t  Would  be  such  if  on  the  circle  and  passaging  toward  the  centre. 


283 


roborates  the  view  we  have  taken  of  the  nature  of 
the  action. 

§  215.  Circling  on  the  Fore-hand,  and  Circling  on 
the  HaunchesJ^ — These  movements,  including,  of 
course,  the  pirouette  renversee,  and  the  pirouette, 
seem  to  be  both  contained  in  the  actions  of  the 
"passage."  Circhng  on  the  fore-hand  being  the 
haunch  movement,  with  the  neck  movement  re- 
duced to  a  minimum,  and  circHng  on  the  haunches 
the  neck  movement,  with  the  hauncli  movement 
reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Circling  mi  the  Fore-hand,  with  the  head  turned 
inwards.  The  horse  is  put  in  position  with  the 
appui,  say,  on  the  left  hind  and  right  fore-feet^ 
The  rider  lifts  the  left  hind-foot  with  the  left  spur, 
presses  down  the  right  hind-foot  with  his  right 
seat-bone,  and  continues  the  action  of  the  left  spur 
until  the  formation  of  the  primary  section  of  the 
left  posterior  line ;  the  thrusting  element  held  in 
check,  carries  the  left  hind-leg  across  the  body  to 
the  right.  No  pressure  being  made  with  the  left 
rein,  as  is  done  in  the  "passage,"  the  weight  is 
thrown  upon  the  left  fore-foot  without  moving  it, 

*  These  movements  are  well  shown  in  the  plates  accompanying  the 
late  General  Kenner  Garrard's  Annotations  on  Nolan,  Baucher  and 
Rarey. 


284 


and  when,  the  pressure  of  the  right  seat-bone  being 
lightened,  the  restoration  of  the  left  anterior  hne 
occurs,  this,  while  in  the  body  connection  it  passes 
the  right  hind-foot  well  to  the  right,  in  the  neck 
connection  only  moves  the  right  fore-foot  suffici- 
ently around  its  left  fellow  to  readjust  the  posi- 
tion. 

In  the  pirouette  renversee,  we  should  suppose 
that  the  addition  made  to  the  above  movement 
was,  that  the  horse  somewhat  increases  the  neck 
gathering,  and  retains  it  until  the  arc  is  completed. 
He  raises  and  passes  across  the  left  hind-foot,  and 
springs  from  the  right  hind-iooi  by  the  right  ante- 
rior, left  posterior  lines  maintaining,  however,  the 
left-right  reaction  by  keeping  the  left  head  condyle 
in  place  as  the  working  one.  This  last  condition 
enables  him  with  the  right  fore-foot  to  bear  off  the 
weight  on  to  the  left  fore-foot.  He  finally  descends 
on  the  left  hind-foot,  and  then  plants  the  right  hind 
and  right  fore. 

§  216.  Circling  on  the  Haunches. — The  horse  is 
put  in  position,  say  with  appui  on  the  right  fore 
and  left  hind-leg.  The  right  rein  is  well  drawn,  so 
as  to  fully  develop  the  lower  C  of  the  neck  S,  con- 
vex to  the  left.  Then,  with  the  rider's  right  seat- 
bone  developing  somewhat  the  right  anterior  wind- 


285 


iQg  line,  the  left  rein  is  pressed  against  the  neck 
by  carrying  the  bridle  hand  to  the  right,  and  the 
left  fore-leg  forced  across  to  the  right.  The  left 
spur  is  used  just  sufficiently  to  start  the  move- 
ment to  keep  the  right  hind-foot  a  little  on  its 
inner  bearing,  and  to  insure  the  small  required 
movement  of  the  left  hind-foot  as  it  moves  around 
its  right  fellow  for  a  pivot,  and  then  sustains  the 
extended  adjusting  movement  of  the  right  fore-leg. 
The  sideway  movement  of  the  right  hind-leg  to 
the  right  is  represented  only  by  its  adjustment. 

For  the  piromtte  the  right  spur,  resisted  by  the 
left  side  of  the  bit,  develops  the  secondary  sec- 
tion of  the  left  anterior  line,  and  the  horse  rises  on 
the  left  hind-leg  (>$  210j.  Then  the  pressure  of  the 
rider's  right  seat-bone,  the  pressure  of  the  left 
rein,  and,  if  required,  the  left  spur,  cause  the  horse, 
in  the  effort  to  carry  the  left  fore-leg  across,  to 
face  about  on  the  right  hind-foot  as  a  pivot.  The 
right  spur  keeps  the  horse  from  discharging  the 
left  head  condyle,  and,  with  the  left  bit,  keeps  him 
up.  The  rein  pressure  forces  him  around,  and  the 
left  spur  brings  him  sufficiently  on  the  irmer  bear- 
ing of  the  right  hind-foot.  The  seat-bone  pressure 
must  be  dehcately  adjusted,  as  after  raising  him 
T\ith  that  of  the  left,  the  right  gives  proper  outer 
13 


286 


bearing  to  the  right  hind-foot,  which  may  be  said 
to  be  continually  coi^reded  by  the  inner  bearing. 

§  217.  Changing  direction  on  the  inner  hind-foot 
by  pressing  the  outer  rein  we  should  consider  as 
circling  on  the  haunches  corobined  with  progres- 
sion. 

§  218.  We  have  only  to  add,  in  conclusion  to 
this  part,  that  as  the  snake's  motion  has  been 
taken  as  a  clue  in  tracing  up  the  mechanism  of  lo- 
comotion in  the  higher  animals,  so  the  horseman 
cannot,  we  think,  do  better  than  to  reverse  the 
process,  and  take  the  working  of  analogical  parts 
of  his  own  body  as  a  clue  for  guiding  his  observa- 
tions and  conclusions  as  to  the  actions  which  take 
place  in  the  body  of  his  horse,  and  as  to  the  best 
means  of  controUing  them. 


287 


APPEISTDIX    I 


LOCOMOTION  OF  BIKDS  AND   OF   FISHES, 

We  have  little  to  say  concerning  the  locomotion 
of  these  classes  of  animals.  It  would  seem  to  us 
that,  although  the  fins  of  a  fish  are  added,  appar- 
ently somewhat  in  the  manner  of  limbs,  yet  the 
fundamental  locomotive  action  of  a  true  fish  comes 
from  the  tail,  following  the  ophidian  motions  of  the 
back  bone,  and  acting  on  the  water  as  the  blade  of 
a  single  oar  does  when  worked  at  the  stem  of  a 
small  boat  in  the  motion  called  "  scuUing." 

Birds,  we  should  say,  fly  by  alternately  raising 
and  pressing  down  the  front  edges  of  their  wings. 
The  first  motion  presents  the  wing  as  a  plane  in- 
clined upward  to  the  air  in  the  front-rear  direc- 
tion. This  is  the  outer  bearing,  and  on  this  plane 
they  rise  after  the  second  motion,  which  is  a  down- 
ward stroke  of  the  anterior  edge,  answering  toi;he 
inner  bearing.  If  the  action  of  flying  come  fully 
under  our  theory  of  locomotion,  the  second  motion 
should  collect  the  feathers  in  a  spring  before  its 
discharge. 


288 


Birds,  as  is  commonly  known,  have  no  effective 
movement  in  the  vertebrae  of  the  body  whilst  the 
numerous  vertebrae  of  the  neck  are  very  moveable. 
We  should  explain  the  S  S  actions  of  the  neck  in 
the  following  manner  :  Supposing  the  body  ver- 
tebrae of  a  man  to  be  thus  solidified,  there  would  be 
one  of  the  motive  connections  of  the  arms,  viz., 
that  with  the  body,  unprovided  with  a  diagonal 
counteracting  basis.  This  basis,  as  it  exists, 
brings  the  legs  and  arms  into  connection,  and  both 
are  then  brought  into  a  central  line  by  the  neck  S. 
Possibly  the  extra  S  in  the  neck  of  birds  (one  or 
more  above  the  number  in  quadrupeds  and  man) 
(§  85)  supplies  this  loss,  and  there  is  still  the  same 
double  action  on  a  bird's  wing  as  on  the  arms  of  a 
man. 

A  bird  cannot,  we  think,  keep  its  head  steady 
when  walking  on  the  ground,  without  stretching 
the  neck.  May  it  be  that,  the  body,  being  then 
confined  to  one  plane,  and  the  lower  S  of  the  neck 
having  no  means  of  adjusting  the  excentric  move- 
ments of  the  neck-root,  these  movements  must  be 
communicated  to  the  head.  If  the  neck  be  stretch- 
ed, the  action  of  this  S  is  reduced  as  much  as 
possible. 

The  spring  collected  in  the  wing  and  the  double 


289 


action  above  alluded  to,  being  absent  in  artificial 
wings,  may  have  something  to  do  with  the  poor 
success  attending  all  attempts  to  adapt  them  to 
the  human  frame. 

Possibly  the  reversed  positions  of  the  head  and 
sockets  of  the  rib  articulations  in  the  snake  to 
those  in  the  higher  animals,  may  be  accounted  for 
by  the  discharge  in  the  S  S,  being  successive,  for 
the  former,  but  combined  for  the  latter. 


290 


APPENDIX    II. 


We  will  attempt  a  concise  general  outline  of 
Setting-up  for  the  right  hand  deformity,  bringing 
in  a  portion  of  the  movement  which  has  not  been 
made  sufficiently  prominent  in  the  previous  de- 
scriptions. 

First. —  The  (alternate)  left  posterior  line  leading. 
The  head  being  continuously  raised  forward,  the 
right  upper  ribs  at  the  neck-root  joint  are  pressed 
to  the  left  and  somewhat  forward.  This  latter 
action,  which  begins  a  reduction  of  the  right  upper 
lung  lobe  in  the  ophidian  S,  on  the  course  of  the 
alternate  posterior  line  leading,  extends  to  the 
neck  and  to  the  left  anterior  part  of  the  head-joint, 
when  there  the  socket  begins  to  draw  away  from 
the  condyle. 

Presently  the  left  upper  lung  lobe  begins  to  fill 
and  to  cross  the  secondary  section  of  the  (alternate) 
left  posterior  hne  with  the  corresponding  portion 
of  the  (old)  right  posterior  line.  This  crossing 
passes  from  the  ophidian  to  the  neck  S,  and  causes 


291 


the  anterior  part  of  the  right  head  joint  socket  to 
rise  against  the  corresponding  part  of  the  right 
head  condyle. 

A  repetition  of  the  foregoing  movements  soon 
causes  the  right  lower  lung  lobe  to  commence  jBll- 
ing,  not  on  the  secondary  sections  of  the  right  an- 
terior Hne,  but — and  this  is  the  point  which  we 
wish  to  make  prominent — on  the  reflected  action  for 
the  (alternate)  left  posterior  hne. 

This  is  continued  until  the  left  lower  lung  lobe  is 
equalized  by  exhausting  it  on  the  reflected  action 
of  the  (old)  right  posterior  hne,  carrying  the  move- 
ment through  the  left  hip  joint.  Next  the 
resumption  of  the  direct  action  on  the  (alternate) 
left  posterior  line  completely  fills  the  left  upper 
lung  lobe  and  fully  reduces  the  right  lobe,  ending 
by  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  left  anterior  part 
of  the  head  joint  socket  and  the  drawing  on  the 
right  shoulder-blade  from  above. 

A  shght  continuation  of  the  movement  will  next 
bring  on,  by  induction,  the  full  filling  of  the  right 
lower  lung  lobe  on  the  (alternate)  right  anterior 
line,  the  consequent  reduction  of  the  left  lower  lung 
lobe,  and,  finally,  the  additional  reduction  of  the 
right  upper  lung  lobe  and  fiUing  of  the  left  upper, 
which  all  depend  on  the  equahzation  of  the  two 


292 


anterior  lines.     The  whole  ends  with  a  drawing  on 
the  left  shoulder-blade  from  below. 

Referring  the  two  fillings  of  the  lower  lobe,  i.  e., 
one  from  the  reflected  action  of  the  secondary  sec- 
tion of  the  posterior  line,  and  the  other  from  the 
secondary  section  of  the  anterior  hne,  to  double 
setting-up,  it  may  be  seen  that  the  former  causes 
no  tightening  of  the  muscles  from  the  lower  end  of 
the  sternum  to  the  pubis  bones,  while  the  latter 
does.  Hence,  whenever  beginning  on  one  or  both 
posterior  Hues,  and,  of  course,  in  Mons.  Morquin's 
method,  this  drawing  is  to  be  avoided  until  the  end- 
ing of  the  movement. 

It  may  be  easily  seen,  we  think,  in  what  manner 
the  formations  on  the  anterior  lines  joining  with 
those  of  the  posterior  complete  the  double  twist  of 
the  ribs,  etc.,  and  thus  join  the  filling  of  the  lung 
lobes  into  one. 

Second. — The  (alternate)  right  anterior  line  lead- 
ing. Here  the  head  is  carried  up  and  forward, 
but,  not  drawing  on  the  left  stemo-mastoid  muscle,, 
passes  with  the  neck  somewhat  to  the  right.  It, 
may  need  a  sHght  pressure  of  the  left  shoulder 
blade  forward  and  to  the  right  in  order  to  initiate 
the  movement  on  the  (alternate)  right  anterior  hne 
by  which  the  right  lower  lung  lobe  commences  to> 


293 


fill.  This  filling  begim,  the  movement  extends 
through  neck  and  to  the  right  head  condyle, 
which  begins  to  press  on  its  socket.  The  reduction 
of  the  left  lower  lung  lobe  next  begins  on  the  (old) 
left  anterior  line,  and  the  action  extends  to  the 
neck,  causing  a  marked  movement  in  reducing  the 
left  convex  of  its  lower  C,  and  then  in  reduction  of 
the  left  head  condyle  ;  both  equalizing  the  (old) 
left  anterior  line  with  the  (alternate)  right  anterior, 
crossing  them  at  their  cutting  points  in  the  three 
spines,  and,  from  the  left  shoulder-blade  throwing 
the  tractions  forward  on  to  the  whole  right  side 
line  of  the  sternum  and  on  to  the  right  articulation 
of  the  lower  jaw,  and  at  the  same  time  gi^ong  such 
equahzation  to  the  upper  lung  lobes  as  belongs  to 
the  anterior  lines. 

Finally,  thrown  back  from  the  left  articulation  of 
the  lower  jaw,  begins  the  filHng  of  the  left  upper 
lung  lobe  in  the  direct,  and  of  the  right  lower  in 
the  reflected  course  of  the  (alternate)  left  posterior 
line  and  the  corresponding  reduction  of  the  left 
lower  and  right  upj)er  lobes,  ending  with  a  draw- 
ing along  the  right  side  of  the,  sternum  concentrat- 
ed at  its  right  upper  comer. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  beginning  with  the 
posterior  line  the  final  movement  was  the  straight- 
13^ 


294 


ening  of  the  spine  to  the  right ;  as  in  the  ophidian 
S,  the  drawing  on  the  posterior  cross-Hne  end  of 
the  (alternate)  left  po^erior  Hne  was  estabhshed ; 
while  in  beginning  with  the  anterior  line  the  final 
movement  was  the  straightening  the  tractions  of 
the  breast  bone,  also  to  the  right,  as  the  drawing, 
likewise  in  the  ophidian  spine,  on  the  anterior 
cross-line  end  of  the  (alternate)  right  anterior  line 
was  confirmed. 


It  was  said  that  a  tlieory  would  be  proposed  as 
to  the  course  of  the  optic  nerves ;  but  in  copying 
the  last  manuscript  from  the  older  one  this  was 
omitted. 

It  amounted  simply  to  this  : 

The  optic  nerves,  after  leaving  the  back  of  either 
eye,  run  together  at  about  a  right  angle.  Some  of 
the  fibres  cross  each  other,  and  some  of  them,  it  is 
supposed,  continue  on  their  own  side.  May  it.  not 
be  that  the  crossing  ones  go  with  the  anterior 
winding-Kne  of  their  respective  nerves,  and  those 
which  do  not  cross  with  its  counteracting  posterior 
line  ?  Thus  the  crossing  fibres  of  the  right  optic 
nerve  would  go  with  the  anterior  left  winding-line, 
and  those  which  keep  their  side  with  the  posterior 
right  winding-line,  in  all  the  spines. 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

•aa'  In  snake's  movement '^6-55 

aai  Resume' _ 

Abd  el  Kader— His  definition  of  a  liorseman 262 

Action,  changes  of  in  horse 270 

^ids  -Table  of  their  action 268 

"       The  four ^•''^ 

Air— In  farming  voice 

"      Passes  collaterally ^^' 

"      In  chest  assists  gathering  and  discharge 59 

Alternate  lines ^^ 

Appui,  how  secured  at  one  end  instead  of  centre 33 

"       additional  in  front ^ 

Artificial  ground 126-128 

a                    u          188 

bbi  Insnake ^'^'^ 

bb'  Resimie  of  action ^ 

Ball  and  Socket  Action  at  four  points 120 


where. 


127 


£cue/s  on  ground  ends  of  snake's  ribs 50-51 

Bearers- -A  division  of  the  ribs • ••  ^^ 

Bearings-\y hen  given  off  point  recovers  in  opposite  di- 
rection   

Bicomposite  Spine-lta  bracing  collateral J^ 

Bicomposite  Spine 

Birds,  Locomotion  of ' 

Bit— Its  action "^^ 

„  .^                                                                               2oo 

Bits -     .   .      . 

Body— Only  attachment  to  head  in  front  of  head  jonit  is  by 

the  digastrics " 

Bucking ^^., 

€  Half  a  torsion  curve -' 

C  Rear  the  first  discharged  by  alternate  anterior  line 4S 

C  C  Posterior  part  the  longest ^|j 

Canter " 

"      Its  analogies  with  the  walk ^'_^ 

"     How  it  becomes  a  run ^" 

^                                                                               260 

Cavesson 


INDEX. 

PAGE.. 

Centre  of  force  between  lung-lobes 136-18S 

Chest,  Varying  elasticity  of  different  parts  of 8& 

Chin  must  not  be  allowed  to  interfere  by  dropping 

Changes  of  action  in  horse 270' 

Circling— On  the  fore  hand 283 

"          On  the  haunches 284 

Cord  A.   May  be  twisted  so  as  to  resemble  locomotive  lines 

of  the  snake 22 

Convex  in  discharge  passes  over  concave 57 

Convexes  are  the  normal  sides  of  appui 51 

Collateral  tractions.    Become  such  when 71-120 

Collar  bone  in  man 99 

Convexities  fused  into  two  when  spines  are  combined  (note)  169 

Composite  spine  consists  of 79 

"               "        83 

"              "       Its  bracing  diagonal 95 

Condyles,  Head 88 

Co«  cares— Their  extension  into  and  reversal  of  one  another  190 

Cross-lines 20-27 

"       "    All  plane  sections  between  changes  of  curva- 
ture may  be  considered  as  such 39- 

Cross-line  end,  Lower  Displacement  of 34 

Cross-Zme— Directions  in  which  its  ends  are  moved 31 

Ci'oss-lines— Their  seats  for  the  different  spines 188 

Curvature,  Gradations  of 30 

Deformed  movement,  Cause  of 78 

Deformity— The  right  hand  gives  a  sort  of  canter  to  step. .  181 

Displacement  of  lower  cross-line  end 34 

Discharge  of  spring  caused  by  cross  cutting  of  winding 

lines 53: 

"         for  posterior  CO  ascends,  and  for  anterior  CC  de- 
scends    55 

"         of  spring 153-154 

Digits— ]Ao\x  numbei-ed 101 

Dishing  of  fore-feet  in  horse 106. 

Diaphragm 108 

Direct  action  of  secondary  section  in  posterior  lines 117 

Disunited  gallop 17S 

Digastrics .; 112 

"          Their  analogy  with  the  diaphi'agm,  etc 121 

"           Their  attachments 124 

"           Their  working 12& 

«•          Correspondence  with  ball  and  socket  action  —  138 

Diagonal  action 127 

Double  action 167 


PAGE. 

Double  pace  (full  run) 171 

"        trot 177 

Dropping  from  a  heig:ht 246 

Eight,  Figure  of,  Shape  56 

Elements  of  torsion,  Two 24 

"         of  motion  projected  on  base  of  skull 78 

Epiglottis 116 

"         Retains  compressed  air  in  lungs 117 

Equalizations  may  begin  at  any  point  185 

"  See  setting-up 

Eyes  lead  locomotion 73 

"    HoAv  steadied 73 

"    Pulley  muscle  of 74-112-128 

"    Respeclively  pivots  of  diagonal  rear  appui 77 

"    The  foot  ends  of  all  locomotion 142 

"    In  the  trot 142 

Eye-muscles— ¥i.o^>v  aflfected  by  anterior  lines 183 

Exercises  given  by  Mons.  Morquin 245 

French— A  French  system  of  setting-up 239-238-240 

Feeling  the  movements  of  horse 270 

Filling  of  lung  lobes  and  lung  tips 131-132 

Final  action  in  equalizing,  the  same  as  the  commencing  one  184 

Fish,  Locomotion  of 287 

Fingers  Represent  ribs 100 

Flying,  Reasons  against  artificial 289 

Forcing  the  winding  lines  without  discharging  them . .' 68 

Fore-foot  of  horse— Why  it  remains  presenting  for  inner 

bearing  after  the  lift 135 

Fore-leg— \N\ien  substituted  for  digastric  in  connection 

with  diagonal  hind  leg 139 

Focus  of  force  the  centre  between  lung  lobes 188 

Foot  of  horse— A  theory  of  its  analogies 105 

Foot— How  the  whole  foot  is  kept  on  ground  while  CC  suc- 
ceed each  other  in  action 103 

"    How  constituted  in  man,  horse,  dog,  etc 104 

"    Raised  hind— When  only  it  can  be  fairly  put  down 137-138 

Gaits  of  horse,  Difference  between 143 

Gallop  Change  to  Avalk 271 

"             "        "    trot 272 

Giraffe— Moxement  of  lower  jaw 156 

Ground,  Artificial  or  real,  What  for  each  spine 188 

Hand— Heel  of  palm  should  always  strike  first 246 

Halt,  the  (see  Equalization  Setting-up) 165 

Halting,  three  ways  of 166 

"         Final  action  same  as  commencing  one 184 


INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Halting,  From  the  gallop 274 

"         How  differing  from  locomotion 72 

Head  joint  in  snake— Its  action 37 

"       "      Relations  of  its  different  parts  to  the  winding 

lines 91 

"       "      How  altered  in  the  higher  animals 87 

Head— To  be  kept  always  raised  up 250 

Higher  animals    76 

l/b?-se— Muscles  answering  to  sterno-mastoids  and  a  clue 

to  action  of  the  latter,  85  note 96 

Illustrations  for  diagonal  movements  ;  always  suppose  left 
anterior  and  right  posterior  winding  lines  to  com- 
mence the  action 25 

Joint  Virtual,  at  roof  of  neck 89 

Kicking 276 

Lateral  pressures  at  head  joint 92-93 

Larynx 116 

Landing  from  spring— Order  in  which  snake's  ribs  should 

come  to  ground 58 

Legs  Free— How  moved   in    discharge 121 

"      Diagonal— Their  movement  more  synchronous  in  re- 
trogression   165 

•'     Table  of  their  lateral  movements 269 

Limbs,  Fore  and  hind.  Difference  between 97 

"       Fore— How  guided  by  trunk,  and  how  by  neck 133 

Lines,  Winding 28 

"      Alternate  may  lead  in  equalizing 186 

Line  of  general  pressure,Where  oblique  requires  rounding 

of  condyles 91 

Lobes  of  lungs 112 

Locomotion  of  man  and  of  the  liorse 130 

Loops  of  windpipe,  When  they  allow  lower  jaw  to  close...  125 

Lotver  jaw— Its  articulations 125-129 

"       "      Artificial  gi-ound  for  bicomposite  spine 127 

"•       "     Yields  in  retrogression 165 

"       '•      Goes  especially  with  posterior  ec 212 

"       "     Analogues  to  its  motion 97 

Lungs  in  the  higher  animals 107 

'•     CeMs  and  tubes  of 116 

"      Exercises  founded  on  their  action 182 

''     In  the  snake 74 

'♦      Their  centre  the  focus  of  force  and  centre  of  set- 
ting-up    136-188 

Lung  lobes 112 

"      "    Their  pecuUar  shape 114 


INDEX.  T 

PAGE. 

Ijung  lobes,  Manner  of  filling 114-131-132 

"      "    How  their  filling  and  exhausting  accompanies 

the  diflferent  lines  of  torsion 117 

"      "    Filling  of  each  brings  its  C  forward 190 

"      *'    Filled  through  collateral  nostrils 238 

"     "    Ball  and  socket  action  between  them  the  pivot 

of  all  movement 247 

Lung  tips 112 

"      "       Manner  of  filling 115-131-132 

"      "       Analogous  action  in  lower  lobes 115 

"      "       Theiraction 238 

Morquin,  Mons— His  account  of  himself 239 

"  His  method  of  setting-up 238-240 

iVccA;— Snake  must  use  two  or  three  vertebrae  as  such 60 

"     Its  connection  with  the  fore  limbs 98 

JSTeck-root— Its  virtual  ball  and  socket  joint 89-90-128 

Neck-root  joint— On  it  the  fore  limbs  change  from  their  body 

to  their  neck  connection 98 

iVosM7s— Normal  tilliug  of  lungs  has  place  through  them . .         238 
"         Why   sometimes    difficult   to    breathe    entirely 

through  them 244 

Oeynhausen,  von  Colonel 161-172-179-272 

Ophidian  S 83 

Orleans,  Duke  o/— His  judgment  on  Baucher's  system 258 

Passage 280 

Pace 154-155-156-157 

"    Details  of 158-159-160 

Pelvis 78 

"    Muscular  connection  with  breast  bone 87 

"    Acts  with  both  CC 142 

Perpendicular  plane.  Movement  in 58 

Pillars  of  diaphragm 110 

Pirouette  and  pirouette  reuversee 284 

Points  of  application 25 

Posterior  winding  line— Its  working  not  completed  until 

at  partial  discharge  of  spring 137 

'•       point  of  application— Its  direct  drawing  almost  at 

last  moment  in  equalization 192 

Posterior  ivinding  ?t7ies— Reflex  and  direct  action  of  their 

secondary  sections , 117 

Primary  sections  of  winding  lines 29 

Pressure  of  socket  against  condyle  on  one  side  depends  on 

its  separation  on  the  other 39 

"       Lateral  at  head  joint 92-93 

Propellers— A  division  of  the  ribs 58 


PAGE. 

Progression— From  the  position  of  ready  to  discharge 65 

Progressive  locomotion,  how  secured 184 

Psoce  muscles Ill 

Pubis  bones— A  continuation  of  the  breast  bone 79 

Baabe,  Capt.— His  theory  of  the  walk  in  man  (note) 103 

Reflected  action  of  secondary  section  of  posterior  lines 117 

Retrogression 45-65-163-164 

Resume'  of  snake's  movement 61 

"       of  chief  points  in  locomotion  and  halting 182 

RestiUs  which  may  ensue  on  position  of  readiness  to  dis- 
charge    64 

Rein,  Pressure  of  on  side  of  neck 263-286: 

Rearing 274 

Rib  collects  spring 44 

Ribs  of  snake 42 

"            *■'     How  double  twisted 43 

Ribs  Slip  at  articulations 45 

"    How  correspond  with  raovemements  of  head  joint. . .  46 
"    How  affected  as  to  their  bearings  by  the  winding 

lines 51-52-53 

"    Respective  roles  of  those  on  the  anterior  and  pos- 
terior part  of  a  convex 56. 

"    On  concaves  do  not  change  facings  until  the  spinal 

curves  change  37 

•'    Proportion  of  in  higher  animals 76 

"    True  and  false 80 

"    Proportion  of  false  to  true  in  several  animals 81 

"    How  assigned  to  the  CC 82 

Riding — How  different  from  personal  locomotion 252 

"           Why  rider  leaves  his  horse 251 

"  Right  shoulder  forward,''''  in  riding  agi-ees  with 25& 

8          Least  number  of  vertebrae  which  can  constitute. . .  84 

Definition  of 2a 

SSS  Nomenclature 83 

"    "Why  three  are  required  in  higher  animals 82 

Sacrum 79^ 

Saddles 257 

Scutce  of  snake— Their  action 60 

Sections  of  winding  lines,  primary  and  secondary 29 

Seeger,  Herr 27(i 

Seat  of  rider  over  lungs  of  horse 252 

Seat  bone  pressure— Its,  action 261 

Setting-up 182 

"       "  Tables  of  on  the  ophidian  action 194 

"       "  Remarks 20S 


PAGE. 

Setting  up  Pacing  movement 211 

"        "  On  horse-back 253 

"       ''  Following  a  continued  raising  of  the  head 248-290 

"  Appendix  II 290 

"       "  On  the  alternate  lines,  ophidian  movement 214-217 

"       "  On  the  alternate  lines,  pacing  movement 220-221 

"        "  Practical  Ophidian  movement 222-223-224 

"        "        "  Pacing  movement 225-226 

"       "       "  Alternate  lines 227-228-229 

"        "  By  double  action  Anterior  lines 231 

"       '•'■    "       "  "       Posterior  lines 235 

Shoulder  blades,  Act  with 142 

"  "       Their  connection  with  the  neck 98 

"  "       Straightening  of  the  figure  concentrated 

between  them 188 

"              "       Go  in  connection  with  the  trunk  with  an- 
terior CC 212 

"  "       Their  effect  on  the  winding  lines  when 

they  are  pressed  directly  on  the  base 

of  the  neck 230 

"  "       Should  work  directly  on  each  other  as 

appuis 247 

Snake— "Why  possibly  its  manner  of  rib  articulation  is  re- 
versed in  the  higher  animals 289 

"         Anatomy  of 36 

"         Its  movement 40-61 

"        Probably  incapable  of  locomotion  by  "  double  ac- 
tion"   49 

>ifptn«— Its  mode  of  action 22 

"       Of  snake,  its  anatomy 41 

"       Composite  consists  of 79 

"       Bicomposite 84 

Spines— Hovf  the  three  combine 189 

Spur— Its  action 261-262 

Sterno-mastoid  muscles 85 

Sternum — Intermediate  appui  when  action  of  the  neck  leads         99 

"         -  Its  movements 140 

Stopping  a  horse  by  forcing  bit  upward  (note) 258 

Superimposition  of  twists,  Definition  of. 67 

Sytnbols  used  in  explanations 144-168 

Tables  for  equalization  of  the  four  tractions 194 

Table  for  action  of  the  aids 268 

"     for  lateral  movements  of  the  legs 269 

Temporal  muscles 125» 

Torsions,  Counter,  reverse  each  other  or  themselves 31 


INDEX. 

PAUE. 

Torsion  may  be  resolved  into  two  elements 24 

Toes  Represent  ribs 100 

Tbe,  Great,  Should  spread  inward 102 

Transformation  of  action  of  posterior  lines 39 

Trot — General  description 130 

"      Details  of  A 145-148 

"  "       ofB 14b-153 

"      Change  to  walk , 270 

"      togallop 273 

Turning 277 

Twisis— Discussion  of  theory 25 

"          Superimposition  of  Definition 67 

Vocal  chords 239 

Vertebrae  in  the  higher  animals 76 

Walk  in  the  horse 161-162-163 

Winding  lines 28 

"  "    Anterior  and  posterior  traced  for  composite 

spine 161 

•'  "    How  posterior  becomes  alternate  anterior. .  179-180 

"           "    How  they  affect  the  rib  bearings 183 

"           "    Their  general  course  in  the  bicomposite  spine  186 

"           "    Their  sections 92 

"           "    Nomenclature 30 

JFmdptpe— Artificial  groun d  for  neck  action 126 

"          How  suspended 121 

"          Torsion  and  counter  torsion  in 123 


Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinary  IWedicine 

Cummings  Scliool  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 

Tufts  University 

200  Westboro  Road 

North  Grafton,  MA  01536  ..^..^ 


